Phonetics and phonology are different but complementary domains in the study of languages. Phonetics on one hand deals with the sound production, as well as the organs or parts of body involved in their production. Phonology on the other hand, studies the various ways the sounds change due to the individual differences, such as culture, geographical location, etc.
Where are sounds produced?
This is a basic question in Phonetics and Phonology, which brings us to articulatory phonetics. Since language comes out through the mouth, it would be a good idea to study the mouth and the parts where each sound is made. Look at the diagram below.
The articulatory organs (the organs of speech)
In the diagram you can see where each consonant sound is produced. We call these areas ‘points of articulation’. The points of articulation to make the sounds of English are the:
two lips
teeth ridge (alveolar)
hard palate
soft palate (velum)
nasal cavity
glottis.
The consonant sounds
Other area concerned by phonetics and phonology is the study of consonants. Each consonant sound has a name, derived from its place and manner of articulation. In the English consonant system there are 24 consonant sounds.
Below are listed all the 24 consonants of English. Because they are not letters but sounds, they are written in-between slanted strokes.
/p/and/b/
/t/ and /d/
/k/ and /g/
/f/ and /v/
/s/ and /z/
/ʃ/ and /ʒ/
/ʧ/ and /ʤ/
/ɵ/ and /ʆ/
/m/
/n/
/ŋ/
/I/
/r/
/h/
/w/
/j/
Observe carefully, in a mirror, where each of these sounds is produced and listen to the manner of production. Try to name each consonant sound – their points of articulation and the manner in which they are produced will help you do this. Most of them are in pairs – try sounding them out and note the differences.
Notice that /p/ and /b/ are produced by blocking the air from the lungs at the two lips and then releasing it suddenly. So where do you produce the two sounds? At the two (bi) lips (labials). How are the two sounds produced? By blocking the air with the lips and suddenly releasing it, making a plosive. So from the explanation of the manner and point of articulation, what name would you give to these two sounds? Bilabial plosives.
You can further classify the two bilabial plosives as ‘voiceless’ and ‘voiced’. Sound them again: /p/ is silent or voiceless and /b/ is voiced. Voiceless consonants are produced by tightening the vocal chords (voccoids) in the larynx so that they do not vibrate. With voiced consonants, the voccoids are relaxed and allowed to vibrate.
Plosive consonants can also be classified as ‘fortis’ and ‘lenis’; these are Latin words for strong and weak. Say the sounds /p/ and /b/ again – loudly. What do you feel? When /p/ is sounded, even-the chest moves due to force. So /p/ is fortis (strong) and -/b/ is lenis.
/t/ and /d/ are alveolar plosives.
/k/ and /g/ are velar plosives
/f/ and /v/ are labio-dental fricatives.
/s/ and /z/ are alveolar fricatives.
/ʃ/ and /ʒ/ are post or palato-alveolar fricatives.
/ʧ,/ and /ʤ/ are palato-aiveolar affricates.
/ɵ/ and /ʆ/ are dental fricatives.
/m/is a labio-nasal.
/n/ is an alveolar nasal.
/ŋ/ is a velar nasal.
/l/ is a lateral.
/r/ is a post alveolar approximant.
/h/ is a glottal fricative.
/j/ is an approximant or a semi-vowel.
/w/ is an approximant or a semi-vowel.
The vowel sounds
A phoneme, in simple terms, is a meaningful sound unit. This means that all the sounds listed above are phonemes.
Look at the following symbols for vowel sounds.
Group A
/ɪ/as in pit /pɪt/
/e/ as in pet /pet/
/ӕ/ as in man /mӕn/
/ᴧ/ as in but /bᴧt/
/ɒ/ as in pot /pɒt/
/ʊ/ as in put /put/
/ə/as in about /əbaʊt/
Group B
/i:/ as in key /ki:/
/ɑ:/as in car/kɑ:/
/ɔ:/ as in core /lɔ:/
/u:/as in cool /ku:/
/ɜ:/ as in curve /kɜ:v/
Group C
/eɪ/ as in bay /beɪ/
/aɪ/ as in buy /baɪ/
/ɔɪ/ as in boy /bɔɪ/
/ɪd as in peer /pɪa/
/ea/ as in pear /pea/
/ʊa/ as in poor /pʊa/
/eʊ/ as in go /geʊ/
/aʊ/ as in cow /kaʊ/
Short and long vowel sounds
We have deliberately grouped the vowel sounds to help you understand more clearly. Groups A and B both have ‘pure vowel sounds’, but in Group A are ‘short vowel sounds’ and in Group B ‘long vowel sounds’. The vowel sounds in Group C are not pure; they are diphthongs. To make a diphthong the tongue has to ‘glide’; in other words, it has to shift from one position to another in order to bring out a sound. For example, to pronounce /ei/ the tongue moves from the Id to the /ɪ/ position. One vowel sound makes up a monophthong and two vowel sounds make up a diphthong. When three vowel sounds follow on they form a triphthong.
In any language the vowel and consonant sounds blend with each other to come up with intelligible words that carry the thoughts of the speaker. When these sounds reach the listener they have to be decoded, and this decoding will depend on what is already on the mind of the hearer.
Phonetics and phonology in brief
♦ Phonology covers the largest part of language, as communication in any language is facilitated by the sounds that carry the message.
♦ Different languages are the result of the differences in the way the sounds are produced and the meanings they convey, according to the culture and customs of the language-speakers.
♦ Letters are not sounds and sounds are not letters, but letters stand for sounds. Phonetics is the study of the sounds of different languages.
♦ Phonemics (or phonetics) is the transcription or ‘writing gown’ of different languages.
♦ Speaking in and listening to a language involves more than simply hearing. The brain has to encode and decode the language to make meaning.
Both phonetic and phonology are necessary to understand the basic elements of communication and expression in any language.
There are thousands known causes of disabilities, but in a great number of cases the exact cause of the disability is never known. Several factors may combine to create a disability.
A disability may be developmental or acquired and may arise from prenatal damage, perinatal factors, acquired neonatal factors and early childhood factors. These may include genetic factors, infections, traumatic or toxic exposure or nutritional factors which result in perinatal or postnatal damage.
Risk Factors for Developmental Delay
Developmental disabilities can occur singly or concurrently in one person. Developmental disabilities can involve a cognitive or sensory difficulty, social or communications/language-related problem, a motor impairment, adaptive delay or some combination of these. The Global Disease Control Priorities Project estimates that 10% to 20% of individuals worldwide have a developmental disability of some kind. In the U.S. alone, it is estimated that 9% of children younger than 36 months of age have a possible developmental problem, while 13.87% of children 3 to 17 years of age have a developmental disability.
Health care providers who see newcomer families have a pivotal role to play in identifying and initiating early treatment for developmental disabilities. Developmental disabilities may last a lifetime but early recognition of their existence, a timely diagnosis and an appropriate treatment plan can make a difference for the children and families involved. In many parts of the world, sub-optimal conditions and care during pregnancy and childbirth can have a range of impacts on developmental health.
PRENATAL CAUSES OF DISABILITIES
The lack of maternal and child health care is one of the significant causes of disabilities in developing countries. Lack of health insurance and inadequate access to health care for newcomers in Canada could similarly adversely affect health outcomes. Prenatal risk factors include chronic maternal illness, certain maternal infections, toxin exposures and nutritional deficiencies.
Infectious diseases
HIV/AIDS
Some infections that the mother suffers can damage the infant when the disease organisms cross the placental barrier. For example, maternal HIV/AIDS increases the risks for prematurity and being small for gestational age (SGA). Both effects are associated with increased risk of mortality and developmental delay. HIV enters the central nervous system days to weeks after primary exposure. The virus causes neuronal damage and cell death, leading to progressive encephalopathy with motor disabilities, as well as to microcephaly and brain atrophy, with cognitive and language delays.
Cytomegalovirus (CMV)
CMV is a herpes virus spread by close interpersonal contact with saliva, blood, genital secretions, and urine or breast milk. Maternal transmission to the fetus from a new or reactivated infection can occur at any gestational age but is highest with a primary infection compared to a reactivated infection. Ten per cent of affected infants show signs of infection at birth, with a substantial risk of neurological squeal such as Sensori-neural Hearing Loss (SNHL), intellectual delay, microcephaly, seizure disorders and cerebral palsy. CMV is the leading nonhereditary cause of SNHL, which may be progressive, absent at birth, unilateral or bilateral.
Genital herpes is one other virus that affects the newborn baby. Infection of the fetus with this virus usually occurs late in pregnancy, probably during delivery and can result in severe neurological damage. When infection occurs several weeks prior to birth, a variety of congenital abnormalities can result.
Toxoplasmosis
Congenital toxoplasmosis occurs at a rate of 1.5 cases per 1000 live births and causes neurocognitive deficits such as intellectual disability, seizures and visual impairment caused by chorioretinitis.
Rubella
One of the most serious viral diseases during the first three months of pregnancy is rubella, which may produce heart malformations and mental retardation. Maternal infection during pregnancy transmits the rubella virus to the fetus, causing deafness, congenital cataracts, microcephaly, seizures and intellectual disability.
Syphilis
It was estimated in 2008 that over 1.3 million cases of syphilis had occurred in pregnant women worldwide, with a large proportion being untreated or inadequately treated. Like all the preventable STIs, syphilis has been linked to preterm labour, low birth weight and death. Congenital syphilis can cause deafness, microcephaly, intellectual disability and visual impairment through interstitial keratitis.
Prenatal toxins
Smoking
Maternal smoking during pregnancy increases the risk of placenta Previa, placental abruption, and preterm labour. It also has adverse effects on fetal growth.
Alcohol
Excessive exposure to alcohol in the utero is the most common teratogenic cause of developmental disabilities, including microcephaly, cognitive disability, learning disabilities, Attention Deficits Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and behavioral challenges. Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) occurs worldwide in approximately 1.9 per 1000 live births.11 Alcohol causes interruption of neuronal production and secondary destruction, with faulty migration of neurons causing microcephaly.
Prescription and non-prescription drugs
Maternal exposure to other toxins, including recreational drugs and certain medications can also cause developmental disabilities. These drugs can cross the placenta and adversely affect the developing child. For example, around the 1960s, thalidomide was introduced as a medication to control nausea in pregnant women. But unfortunately, it turned out to cause severe malformations in the legs and/or arms of the developing child.
Many other drugs are suspected of producing birth defects when taken during pregnancy. Substances that produce such effects are called teratogens. There is a long list of substances known or suspected to be teratogens, including legal drugs such as alcohol, nicotine and caffeine. Prescription drugs such as hormones, steroids, anticonvulsants as well as tranquilizers are also known to causes disabilities at prenatal stage. Environmental pollutants such as lead and mercury as well as Illegal drugs such as cocaine, heroin and marijuana are known causes of disabilities at this stage.
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
The amino acid phenylalanine is a neurotoxin to the developing fetal brain. Untreated PKU, both maternal and postnatal in the infant, causes intellectual disabilities.
Environmental toxins
Excessive exposure to radiations such as X-rays can affect the fetus.
Exposure to lead, mercury and chemical compounds such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) and alcohol can be identified as a contributing cause of intellectual disability in 4% to 5% of cases. The dose and timing of exposures are variables in predicting neurotoxic outcomes.
Maternal chronic illness
Illnesses such as diabetes, hypertension, renal disease and autoimmune disorders are associated with complications to pregnancy that can adversely affect a fetus or newborn child. Maternal diabetes increases the risk of fetal anomalies, macrosomia (a birth weight >4000 grams), subsequent birth injury and hypoglycemia, all of which can negatively impact developmental outcomes in the infant. Hypertension, alone or combined with a renal or autoimmune disorder, can cause placental insufficiency and inadequate fetal growth.
Maternal nutritional deficiencies
Maternal malnutrition, before and during pregnancy, can have a negative impacts on infant birth weight and development. Maternal nutrition affects the developing child. Deficiencies in iron, vitamins and calorie intake can place the baby at risk. Severe maternal malnutrition may impair the child’s intellectual development in addition to having adverse effects on physical development. Folic acid deficiency is associated with neural tube defects. Severe deficiency is associated with intellectual disability, growth failure and cretinism. This risk factor for developmental disability may also be combined with increased exposure to prenatal toxins.
PERINATAL RISK FACTORS
The WHO and the Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada define the perinatal period as commencing at 22 weeks gestation and ending 7 days after birth. The inadequate care in this critical period puts mothers and children at higher risk for several pregnancy-related complications, such as birth trauma, hypoxia and ischemia, hypoglycemia, hyperbilirubinemia and various serious infections.
Disabilities originating at perinatal stage are biomedical in nature. They may result from drugs taken during labour and delivery, prematurity, injury, oxygen deprivation, or infections acquired during the trip through the birth canal.
Perinatal infections
STIs: Congenital transmission of herpes viruses 1 and 2 is associated with a high risk of long-term neurological problems. Without treatment, 30% to 50% of infants born to mothers with untreated gonorrhea, and up to 30% with untreated chlamydia, will develop ophthalmic neonatorum, which can lead to blindness if not treated early.
Bacterial infections can be transmitted from mother to child trans-placentally, during pregnancy or during delivery, by passage through the birth canal. Congenital bacterial infections leading to neonatal sepsis and meningitis are an important cause of neonatal morbidity in developing countries.
Rh Iso-immunization
Undiagnosed or untreated Rh Iso-immunization is associated with anemia and severe hyperbilirubinemia, and may result in seizures, deafness, cognitive delays and cerebral palsy in infants who survive.
Premature/Preterm birth
Preterm birth (<37 weeks gestation) is a global problem. Risk factors for preterm delivery include: multi-fetal pregnancy, uterine abnormalities, placental bleeding, prenatal drug exposure, chronic maternal illness, hypertensive disorders, prolonged rupture of the membranes and bacterial vaginosis.
Lack of prenatal care, under immunization and inadequate treatment for maternal infections or other medical issues, including STIs, can all contribute to developmental disabilities in a preterm.
Oxygen deprivation
This condition is also known an anoxia. It may occur during a prolonged or difficult birth, and because the brain suffers damage very quickly without a fresh and adequate supply of oxygen, brain damage can result. The neurons of the central nervous system require oxygen, if they are deprived of it, some cells may die and this can cause physical and psychological defects. If too many neurons die, the infant may suffer serious brain damage. Anoxia in a newborn is more likely to damage cell of the brain stem than those of the cortex and to result in motor defects. In extreme cases, the child may experience paralysis of the legs and arms.
POSTNATAL/ENVIRONMENTAL CAUSESOF DISABILITIES
Postnatal causes occur after birth. The environment is a major factor in many of these situations. Congenital illnesses or infections such as meningitis, cerebral malaria and other childhood illnesses may cause mental retardation. Meningitis if not treated may cause brain damage. Other environmental factors include:
Poor nutrition
Inadequate medical care
Exposure to environmental toxins such as lead.
Ignored or neglected infants, not provided with mental or physical stimulation may suffer from intellectual disabilities.
Physical abuse- children who are excessively abused may show some discrepancy in terms of their mental development.
PRECONCEPTIONAL FACTORS / GENETIC FACTORS
Preconceptional causes of developmental disability relate predominantly to genetic disorders or malformation syndromes. Genetic disorders are the most commonly identified causal factor for intellectual and other disabilities, and include single gene disorders, multifactorial and polygenic disorders, and chromosomal abnormalities. Genetic disorders associated with developmental delay include sickle cell disease. Sickle cell is a blood disorder caused by recessive genes. Children only have the disorder if they receive the gene from both parents. If the gene is paired with a normal one, the individual does not have the condition, but can pass it on to his or her descendants. These individuals are called carriers. Other examples of genetic causes of disabilities include:
Fragile X syndrome
The fragile X syndrome is an inherited disability caused by a mutation on the X chromosome and it is now recognized as the most commonly known inherited cause of mental retardation, affecting about 1 in 4,000 males and 1 in 8,000 females. A common associated condition is recurrent otitis media (middle ear infection) with resulting hearing and language problems.
Cognitive disabilities can also be severe. Many of these individuals are challenged by limited attention span, hyperactivity, stereotypic behaviours (such as hand flapping or hand biting), and an inability to relate to others in typical ways. It is believed that almost half of individuals with fragile X syndrome have coexisting autism.
Fragile X syndrome – Causes of Disabilities
Down syndrome
Another example of a genetic cause for mental retardation due to a chromosomal abnormality is Down syndrome (a chromosomal disorder wherein the individual has too few or too many chromosomes). The nucleus of each human cell normally contains 23 pairs of chromosomes (a total of 46). In the most common type of Down syndrome, trisomy 21, the 21st set of chromosomes contains three chromosomes rather than the normal pair. Certain identifiable physical characteristics include an extra flap of skin over the innermost corner of the eye.
The degree of mental retardation varies, depending in part on how soon the disability is identified, the adequacy of the supporting medical care, and the timing of the early intervention. A great majority of people with Down syndrome have a high incidence of medical problems. For example, about half have congenital heart problems, and these individuals have a 15 to 20 times greater risk of developing leukaemia. Although people with Down syndrome have intellectual disabilities, they have fewer adaptive behaviour challenges than many of their peers with mental retardation.
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
Some genetic causes of disabilities are not so definite but rather result from interplay between genes and the environment. Phenylketonuria (PKU), also hereditary, occurs when a person is unable to metabolize phenylalanine, which builds up in the body to toxic levels that damage the brain. If untreated, PKU eventually causes mental retardation. Changes in diet (eliminating certain foods that contain this amino acid, such as milk) can control PKU and prevent mental retardation, though cognitive disabilities can be seen in both treated and untreated individuals with this condition
Causes of disabilities – Phenylketonuria
Overcoming challenges
Although some conditions or causes of disabilities cannot be prevented, at least at the present time, the impact of the condition can be reduced substantially by directly addressing the cause. For example, PKU is a genetic reason for mental retardation but that it takes factors in the individual’s environment for damage to be devastating. Even more cases are preventable.
Education and access are at the heart of many prevention measures. For example, education about the prevention of HIV/AIDS can be effective with all adolescents, including those with mental retardation. Public education programs can also help pregnant women understand the importance of staying healthy.
Other prevention strategies involve testing the expectant mother, analysing the risk factors of the family (genetic history of disabilities or various conditions), and taking action when necessary; screening infants; protecting children from disease through vaccinations; creating positive, nurturing, and rich home and school environments; and implementing safety measures. The incidence of disabilities, including mental retardation, has been greatly reduced by immunization against viruses such as rubella, meningitis, and measles.
People must not underestimate the importance of prenatal care. For example, FAS is 100 per cent preventable. Pregnant mothers who do not drink alcohol prevent this condition in their children. Staying healthy also means taking proper vitamins and eating a well-balanced diet. For example, folic acid reduces the incidence of neural tube defects. By eating citrus fruits and dark, leafy vegetables (or taking vitamin supplements), one receives the benefits of folic acid—a trace B vitamin that contributes to the prevention of conditions such as spina bifida and anencephaly.
Prevention of disabilities
For Pregnant Women
For Children
For Society
Obtain early prenatal medical care.
Guarantee universal infant screening.
Eliminate the risks of child poverty.
Seek genetic counselling.
Ensure proper nutrition.
Make early intervention programs universally available.
Maintain good health.
Place household chemicals out of reach.
Provide parent education and support.
Avoid alcohol, drugs, and tobacco.
Use automobile seatbelts, safety seats, and cycle helmets.
Protect children from abuse and neglect.
Obtain good nutrition.
Provide immunizations.
Remove environmental toxins.
Prevent premature births.
Prevent or treat infections.
Provide family planning services.
Take precautions against injuries and accidents.
Have quick and easy access to health care.
Provide public education about prevention techniques.
Visual communications as the name suggests constitute a form of communication through visual aid. It is the conveyance of ideas and information in forms that can be read or looked upon. It is one of the non-verbal communication skills that involves the sight and perception to communicate the information to the audience.
Visual Communications
Primarily associated with two dimensional images, the visual communications includes: signs, fl, drawing, graphic design, mapping, colour and electronic resources. It solely relies on vision. It is a form of communication with visual effect. It explores the idea that a visual message with text has a greater power to inform, educate or persuade a person. It is communication by presenting information through visual form.
Qualities of good visual Communications
The evaluation of a good visual design is based on measuring comprehension by the audience, not on aesthetic or artistic preference. There are no universally agreed-upon principles of beauty and ugliness. There exists a variety of ways to present information visually, like gestures, body languages, video and TV. Here, focus is on the presentation of text, pictures, diagrams, photos, et cetera, integrated on a computer di
splay. The term visual presentation is used to refer to the actual presentation of information. Recent research in the field has focused on web design and graphically oriented usability. Graphic designers use methods of visual communications in their professional practice.
Types of Visual communications
1. Maps
Map as visual communications tools
Maps are not just a tool in visual communications, They constitute a powerful tool to link one’s mind to the reality. A map brings the scattered elements of the visual objects together for them to make a full sense to the viewer. Not only that, the potentials of mapping presentation go as far as narrowing a wider reality, such as a geographical area presentation, and give the viewer the capability to locate a point in space. They also constitute a skill in art design meant to give directions and links in both space and time to the viewers.
2. Presentations
A good and clear presentation involves the various communication skills, such as writing, drawing, mapping. Presentation itself is a type of visual communications, which is meant to illustrate or share the real life situation or phenomena, in response to the audience need. To successfully present a visual piece of information, the presenter need be mindful of a number of considerations. These include the language used, the graphical quality, the generation, the age and gender, to mention just a few.
3. Flow Charts
Flow charts are highly used in Visual communications
Flow charts as a form of visual communication are aimed at mapping up or graphically representing the process or organisational structures. Flow charts are very important in Business communication, like in other areas that require information flow, in the sense that they give a quick impression of what is being referred to in the presentation.
4. Graphic communication
As the name sounds, graphical communication is a visual presentation, which relies on graphs or other connections among the visual elements of a situation to relate the ideas. This form of communication employs visual structures such as sketches, illustrations and diagrams to express the information. This is a very common form of visual communication, mainly because it doesn’t require more sophistication, but still requires high accuracy to be more understandable.
5. Signs and Symbols
Signs and Symbols used in visual Communications
This is a form of non-verbal communication, which is visual in nature. It is usually referred to as sign language, and consist of different body gestures made by individuals to communicate the necessary information. However, it also incorporates a large set of conventional signs and symbols used in different places or instances to convey messages.
The signs used in this form of communication should be conventional, either internationally or culturally. However, like in any other language communication, there is need to be mindful of cultural differences. Some kind gestures might be offensive in another culture or communicate a totally different kind of message.
CONCLUSION
Communication can now be seen as a very complex process which goes beyond speech making. In the real sense, communication involves a lot of others things that symbols that can be interpreted in various forms depend on the situation and a times the location of the event.
Visual Communication for instances, is one form of non-verbal communication, which gives the meaning of a particular gesture, though this might be different in another geographical location. More so, silence is definitely a means of communication. Hence the various forms of communication are inexhaustible.
Problems with communication can pop-up at every stage of the communication modelling process (which consists of the sender, encoding, the channel, decoding, the receiver, feedback and the context – see the diagram below). At each stage, there is the potential for misunderstanding and confusion.
Models of Communication Process. ImageWix.com
To be an effective communicator and to get your point across without misunderstanding and confusion, your goal should be to lessen the frequency of problems at each stage of this process, with clear, concise, accurate, well-planned communications. We follow the process through below:
Source
As the source of the message, you need to be clear about why you’re communicating, and what you want to communicate. You also need to be confident that the information you’re communicating is useful and accurate.
Message
The message is the information that you want to communicate in the communication modelling. It runs from sender to receiver if there is no obstacle on the way.
Encoding in Communication Modelling
This is the process of transferring the information you want to communicate into a form that can be sent and correctly decoded at the other end. Your success in encoding depends partly not only on your ability to convey information clearly and simply, but also on your ability to anticipate and eliminate sources of confusion (for example, cultural issues, mistaken assumptions, and missing information.)
Encoding the message
A key part of this is knowing your audience: Failure to understand who you are communicating with will result in delivering messages that are misunderstood.
Channel
Messages in communication Modelling are conveyed through channels, with verbal channels including face-to-face meetings, telephone and videoconferencing; and written channels including letters, emails, memos and reports.
Different channels have different strengths and weaknesses. For example, it’s not particularly effective to give a long list of directions verbally, while you’ll quickly cause problems if you give someone negative feedback using email.
Decoding
Just as successful encoding is a skill, so is successful decoding (involving, for example, taking the time to read a message carefully, or listen actively to it.) Just as confusion can arise from errors in encoding, it can also arise from decoding errors. This is particularly the case if the decoder doesn’t have enough knowledge to understand the message.
Receiver
Your message is delivered to individual members of your audience. No doubt, you have in mind the actions or reactions you hope your message will get from this audience. Keep in mind, though, that each of these individuals enters into the communication modelling process with ideas and feelings that will undoubtedly influence their understanding of your message, and their response. To be a successful communicator, you should consider these before delivering your message, and act appropriately.
Feedback
Feedback in Communication Modelling
Your audience will provide you with feedback, as verbal and nonverbal reactions to your communicated message. Pay close attention to this feedback, as it is the only thing that can give you confidence that your audience has understood your message. If you find that there has been a misunderstanding, at least you have the opportunity to send the message a second time.
Context
The situation in which your message is delivered is the context. This may include the surrounding environment or broader culture (corporate culture, international cultures, and so on).
In a simple model, information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in some form (as spoken language) from an emissary/ sender/ encoder to a destination/ receiver/ decoder. In a slightly more complex form a sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally. A particular instance of communication modelling is called a speech act.
The sender’s personal filters and the receiver’s personal filters may vary depending upon different regional traditions, cultures, or gender; which may alter the intended meaning of message contents. In the presence of “communication noise” on the transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of content may be faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve the desired effect.
One problem with this encode-transmit-receive-decode model is that the processes of encoding and decoding imply that the sender and receiver each possess something that functions as a code book, and that these two code books are, at the very least, similar if not identical. Although something like code books is implied by the model, they are nowhere represented in the model, which creates many conceptual difficulties. Creating and delivering the effective presentation requires basic understanding of a communication process
Between parties, communication includes acts that confer knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions. These acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of communication. The form depends on the abilities of the group communicating together, communication content and form make messages that are sent towards a destination. The target can be oneself, another person or being, another entity (such as a corporation or group of beings).
The effective communication requires that the messages are delivered as effectively as possible. To achieve that, you must commit to breaking down the barriers that exist within each of the stages of the communication process. The barriers to effective communication are numerous, but we shall focus the attention of this article to the most common ones
Barriers to effective Communication
1. Lengthy Message
Let’s begin with the message itself. If your message is too lengthy, disorganised, or contain errors, you can expect the message to be misunderstood and misinterpreted. The use of poor verbal and body language can also confuse the message.
Barriers to effective Communication in context tend to stem from senders offering too much information too fast. When in doubt here, less is oftentimes more. It is best to be mindful of the demands on other people’s time, especially in today’s ultra-busy society.
Once you understand this, you need to work to understand your audience’s culture, making sure you can converse and deliver your message to people of different backgrounds and cultures within your own organisation, in your country and even abroad.
2. Noise as one of barriers to effective communication
Noise as one of the Barriers to effective Communication
Noise is the interference that keeps a message from being understood or accurately interpreted by the audience. This may come as result of two main reason:
External noise: Comes from environment where the communication takes place. The main sources of this kind of noise may be loud music, hot sun, babies nearby, or the venue, near heavy traffic or market place, etc.. This breaks the effective communication in the sense that you are unable to exchange the messages as your voices are overpowered by the coming noise.
Internal noise: Occurs in the minds of the sender or receiver when their thoughts and feelings are focused on something other than the communication at hand. This tends to break the normal communication because one of individuals or both involved in communication is absent in mind. You practically seem to be pouring water on the rock.
Semantic
This refers to the meaning of the words or terms used in communication. This may affect the communication in two ways. The first one involved the use of difficult terms by the speaker, that the recipients of the message cannot easily grasp. The second way is the use of language that sounds insinuative to some of your audience. This is likely to arouse people’s emotional reaction to those words and disrupt the effective communication.
There are times when as a manager in an organization, you tend to develop a kind of fear that one of the employees might report whatever goes wrong in the way you handle thing. This kind of paranoia, is very harmful to the effective communication between you and those you have in charge. This fear might be genuine, but it is important to try as much as possible to control it.
Self-talk
Self-talk is a barrier to effective communication
Self-talk may have different meanings, but in communication, we can refer to it as a way of disregarding your audience in your address. In this case, you talk, just like the way you feel like it, or overpraise yourself while speaking, you tend to sound like all the communication or address turns around you and not your audience at all.
This is very hazardous to the effective communication, for people may feel bored and lose interest in the message you intend to deliver.
In conclusion, in order to manage effectively, you need to communicate effectively. In order to communicate effectively, you need to eliminate as much as possible all barriers to effective communication. But you can only avoid these barriers, if you are aware of their existence
