The aim ofmarketingis to meet and satisfy customers’ needs and wants. The field ofconsumer behaviour studies how individuals, groups, and organizations select, buy, use, and dispose of goods, services, ideas, or experiences to satisfy their needs and desires.
Understanding consumer behaviour and “knowing customers” are never simple.Customers may say one thing but do another. They may not be in touch with their deeper motivations. They may respond to influences that change their mind at the last minute.
Factors affecting Consumer Behaviour
Small companies stand to profit from understanding how and why their customers buy. Inthis article, we will consider their willingness to buy as determined by information sources, social environment, psychological forces and situational factors.
DECISION MAKING AS PROBLEM-SOLVING
To deal with themarketing environmentand make purchases, consumers engage in a decision process. One way to look at that process is to view it as problem-solving. When faced with aproblem that can be resolved through a purchase (“I’ m bored. How do I satisfy my needfor entertainment”), the consumer goes through a series of logical stages to arrive at a decision.
The six stages of the buying-decision process are:
1.Need recognition:The consumer is moved by a need.
2.Choice of an involvement level:The consumer decides how much time and effort toinvest in an attempt to satisfy the need.
3.Identification of alternatives:The consumer identifies alternative products and brands and collects information about them.
4.Evaluation of alternatives:The consumer weighs the pros and cons of thealternative identified.
5.Decision:The consumer decides to buy or not to buy and makes other decisionsrelated to the purchase
6. Post-purchase behaviour: The consumer seeks reassurance that the choicemade was the correct one.
Purchase decision may not involve all the stages:
l.The consumer can withdraw at any stage prior to the actual purchase. If, forexample, the need diminishes or no satisfactory alternatives are available, theprocess will come to an abrupt end.
2. It is not uncommon for some stages to be skipped. All six stages are likely to beused only in certain buying situations, for instance, when buying high-priced, infrequently purchased items.
3.The stages are not necessarily of the same length. When a mechanic tells youthat your car’s engine needs an overhaul, it may take only a moment to recognize the need for a new car. However, the identification and evaluation of alternative modelsmay go on for weeks.
4. Some stages may be performed consciously in certain purchase situationsand subconsciously in others. For example, we don’t consciously calculate for every purchase the amount of time and effort we will put forth.
In the following discussion, assume that the six-stage process generally characterizes buying decisions: However, keep in mind that the stage may have to be adjusted to fit the circumstance of a particular purchase situation.
RECOGNITION OF AN UNSATISFIED NEED
The process of deciding what to buy begins when a need that can be satisfied through consumption become strong enough to motivate a person. This need recognition may arise internally (for example when you feel hungry). Or the need may be dormant until it is aroused by an external stimulus, such as an ad or the sight of a product or the depletion of an existing product (your pen runs out of ink)
CHOICE OF AN INVOLVEMENT LEVEL
After recognizing a need, the consumer consciously or unconsciously decides howmuch effort to exert in satisfying it. Sometimes when a need arise a consumer isdissatisfied with the quality of information about the purchase situation and decides to actively collect and evaluate more. These are high-involvement purchases that entail all six stages of the buying decision process. If, on the other hand, a consumer iscomfortable with the information and alternatives readily available, the purchasesituation is low involvement. In such cases, the buyer will likely skip directly from need recognition to a decision, ignoring the stages in between.
Some differences in consumer behaviour in high and involvement situations are:
Consumer Behaviour
Involvement trends to be greater under any of the fol owing conditions:
The consumer lacks information about alternatives for satisfying the need.
A large amount of money is involved.
The product has considerable social importance.
The product is seen as having a potential for providing significant benefits.
Since they rarely any of these conditions, most buying decisions for relatively low priced products that have close substitutes would be low involvement. Typical examples are the majority of items sold in supermarkets, variety stores and hardware store. Involvement mustbe viewed from the perspective of the consumer, not the product.Impulse buyingorpurchasing with little or no advance planning is a form of low involvement decision-making.
IDENTIFICATION OF ALTERNATIVES
Once a need has been recognized and the level of involvement is selected, the consumer mustnext identify the alternatives capable of satisfying the need. The search for alternatives is influenced by:
(i) How much information the consumer already has from past experiencesand other sources.
(ii ) The consumer’s confidence in that information.
(iii) The expected value of additional information.
EVALUATION OF ALTERNATIVES
Once all the reasonable alternative have been identified, the consumer must evaluate them before making a decision. The evaluation involves establishing some criteria against which each alternative is compared.
The criteria that consumers use in the evaluation result from their past experience andfeeling toward various brands, as well as the opinions of family members and friends.
PURCHASE AND RELATED DECISIONS
After searching and evaluating, the consumer must decide whether to buy. Thus the first outcome is the decision to purchase or not to purchase the alternative evaluated as mostdesirable. If the decision is to buy, a series of related decisions must be made regardingfeatures, where and when to make the actual transaction, how to take delivery or possession,the method of payment and other issues.
POST-PURCHASE BEHAVIOR
What a consumer learns from going through the buying process has an influence on how he or she will behave the next time the same need arises.
Having gathered information evaluated alternatives, and arrived at a decision, the consumer has acquired additional knowledge about the product and various brands. Furthermore, new opinions and beliefs have been formed and old ones have beenrevised.
Something else often occurs following a purchase. Have you ever gone through a careful decision process for a major purchase (say, a set of tyres for your car or an expensive item of clothing), selected what you thought as the best alternative, but then had doubts about your choice after the purchase? What you were experiencingis post-purchase cognitive dissonance- a state of anxiety brought on by thedifficulty of choosing from among several alternatives.
Dissonance typically increases
(1) the higher the value of the purchase
(2) the greater the similarity between the item selected item(s) rejected: and
(3) the greater the importance of the purchase decision. Thus buying a house creates more dissonancethan buying a fan.
With this background on the buying, decision process, we can examine what influencesbuying behaviour.
INFORMATION AND PURCHASE DECISIONS
The consumermust find out what products and brands are available. Without thismarket information, there wouldn’t be a decision process because there wouldn’t bedecisions to make.
What are the sources and types of information that exist in the buying environment? The commercial environment and the social environment are the two sources. The commercial information environment consists of all marketing manufacturers, retailers, advertisers, and salespeople whenever any of them are engaged in efforts to inform or persuade. The social environment is comprised of family, friends, and acquaintances who directly provide information about products.
Advertising is the most familiar type of commercial information. The normal kind of social information is word-of-mouth communication, two or more people discussing aproduct. To understand how the consumer functions, we will begin by examining the social and group forces that influence the individual’s psychological makeup and also play a role in specific buying decisions
Green plants make food by a chemical process called photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is a process of capturing and transforming the energy of sunlight into chemical energy. Plants usecarbon dioxideand water to make glucose and release oxygen. Respiration on the other hand is a chemical process in which food is oxidized in an organism to produce energy for cell activities.
CHEMISTRY OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
How much do you value green plants? Do you agree that we depend on plants for many things directly and indirectly? Green plants capture the energy of sunlight and transform it into chemical energy. This chemical process of capturing and transforming the energy of sunlight into chemical energy is called photosynthesis. This is the mechanism through which plants manufacture their own food by using water, carbon dioxide and sunlight absorbed by chlorophyll.
Photosynthesis and Respiration
Through osmosis water is absorbed from the soil and transported to the green leaves where photosynthesis takes place. The most abundant and important photosynthetic pigment is chlorophyll. Green plants contain chlorophyll. Chlorophyll is the green pigment in plants.Carbon dioxidefrom the atmosphere diffuses into the leaf directly. It absorbs sunlight as a source of energy for the mechanism of photosynthesis to succeed. Photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplasts which are found mainly in the leaves.
The mechanism of photosynthesis is in two stages; light reaction (Kelvin reaction) and dark reaction.
1.Light reaction
During day time plants absorb sunlight using chlorophyll. In the leaf, light energy is converted into chemical energy. It is this chemical energy which is used to split water into hydrogen andoxygen. This reaction is reversible. It is during this reaction that oxygen is produced. The reaction is light controlled. It is sometimes called Calvin reaction because it was discovered byMelvin Calvin(1911-1997).
2.Dark reaction
In the second reaction the hydrogen from water chemically combines with carbon dioxide to form glucose. The process is long. This reaction is enzyme controlled and not light controlled. This is the reason why it is called dark reaction.
The chemical equation is as written below:
Factors necessary for photosynthesis to take place arecarbon dioxide, water, light and chlorophyll. Sugar and oxygen are the products of this chemical reaction.
Oxygen is essential for living organisms because it is used in respiration. Respiration is the process by which living cells produce energy from the combination of foods, such as glucose, with oxygen. The oxygen is released as a waste product. The sugar is used in three ways:
i. Converted into starch and transported to other partsof the plant, in some plants it is stored in tubers or stems as food.
ii. Converted into cellulose for the cell walls.
iii. Used by the plant for its own respiration to provideenergyfor other processes.
In addition, plants use glucose molecules made from photosynthesis as a starting point for making other more complex substances which are passed on in the food chain when plants are eaten by animals.
EXPERIMENT 1
How to test for starch in a leaf?
First of all, we have to suggested materials to use in this test. Here is the list of materials to use: A leaf, alcohol, boiling tube, beaker, water, tripod stand, wire gauze, spirit burner or Bunsen burner, Petri dish, test tube, test tube rack, iodine solution, dropper, and forceps.
Once we have the materials, then we plan how to carry out this test. This is called the method or procedure of the test. The method (procedure) is as follows:
a. Detach a leaf from a plant that has been exposed to light and boil it in water for 1 to 4 minutes to make it soft and to stop the chemical reaction.
b. Boil the leaf in alcohol using a water bath to remove chlorophyll
Test for starch (Plant nutrition) in a leaf
c. Wash the leaf in warm water to remove alcohol and to make it soft since alcohol makes the leaf brittle.
A. Spread the bleached leaf on a white tile and add drops of iodine solution. Theiodine solutionturns blue/black if starch is present in the leaf.
EXPERIMENT 2
AIM
To show that oxygen is given out during photosynthesis
MATERIALS
Test tube and rack, wooden splint, pond weed, distilled water, sodium hydrogencarbonate, spatula, 250 cm3beaker, filter funnel and plasticine.
PROCEDURE
a. The apparatus is set as shown above. Sodium hydrogencarbonate is added to the water to increase the availability of carbon dioxide.
b. The whole experiment is left in a well-lit place for a number of days and observation goes on.
oxygen is given out during photosynthesis
RESULTS
Bubbles of a gas are released from the plant and collect in the test tube.
Observation: Bubble of gas was noticed in experiment A. On passing a glowing splint over it, the splint was rekindle. In the set-up B, no bubbles were seen, and it could not rekindle a glowing splint.
Conclusion:
The gas that evolved in A is oxygen because, it is a known test for oxygen that oxygen rekindles a glowing splint.
CONCLUSION
When the gas is tested with a glowing splint of wood, it relights. This shows that the gas is oxygen.
3.Factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis
The following factors have an effect on the rate of photosynthesis in green plants:
a. Light intensity
b. Carbon dioxide concentration
c. Temperature
d. Availability of water
Planning your own experiments
Use your knowledge of photosynthesis to plan experiments to show that carbon dioxide, chlorophyll, and light are necessary for photosynthesis. Each experiment will need a control. Here is an example:
AIM
To show that light is necessary for photosynthesis.
MATERIALS
PROCEDURE
a. The plant is left in the dark for 24 hrs before the experiment starts to remove the starch. This is called de-starching.
b. It is removed from the dark and put in sunlight for 24 hours but with part of the leaf covered by an aluminium foil. What is the role of aluminium foil in the experiment above?
Light is necessary for photosynthesis
Holt in foil
c. The leaf is then tested for the presence of starch.
RESULTS
The parts covered by the aluminium foil does not show the presence of starch but the part where there was a hole the iodine solution changes colour from yellow to blue black showing that starch is present.
This showed that starch was made in the presence of light but not where the leaf remained in the dark.
4.Importance of photosynthesis
To all animals, photosynthesis is very important. The sun is the main source of energy on which all creation depends. However, it is only plants that can utilize this energy. When plants are eaten energy is transferred to other forms. All heterotrophs depend on plants for energy. Even when dead remains of plants decay, energy is never lost but changed into another form which is nutrients in the soil. In conclusion we would say that all animals depend on photosynthesis as they depend on plants.
5.Photosynthesis and cellular respiration
Respiration involves a complicated chain of chemical breakdown of food to release energy. The energy produced is used for many chemical reactions in the living cell. There are two types of respiration – aerobic and anaerobic. Aerobic respiration involves the use of oxygen in the breakdown of glucose while anaerobic respiration does not use oxygen. Here we will look at aerobic respiration in plants.
Photosynthesis is the reverse of cellular respiration. Cellular respiration is the name given to the processes in cells that releases energy from food. Plants also use glucose molecules made from photosynthesis as starting point for making other more complex substances. These two chemical processes take place simultaneously in light in plants.
However, respiration takes place in the cytoplasm and mitochondria while photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplasts. In respiration, glucose and oxygen are used to produce carbon dioxide and water and release energy. In photosynthesis, carbon dioxide, water, and energy are used to produce glucose and to release oxygen. Cellular respiration releases chemical energy while photosynthesis captures light energy.
The chemical equation for cellular respiration is:
C6Hl206+ 602⟶ 6CO2+ 6H2O + energy
The word equation is:
Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy
From the equation above, it is clear that for respiration to take place, food and oxygen must be taken in and reacts together. The end products of respiration carbon dioxide and water must be removed constantly.
It is important for the farmers to understand the most commonanimal diseasesso as to identify them early and have idea on how to treat them.
Good husbandry, proper feeding, and hygiene are the main contributors to animal health on the farm, bringing economic benefits through maximisedproduction. When, despite these precautions, animals still become sick, they are treated with veterinary medicines, by the farmer and the veterinarian. When farmers treat their own animals, they are required to follow the guidelines for treatment and to record the treatments given.
The most Common Animal Diseases
Animals are susceptible to a number of diseases and conditions that may affect their health. Some, like classical swine fever and scrapie are specific to one type of stock, while others, like foot-and-mouth disease affect allcloven-hoofedanimals. Where the condition is serious, governments impose regulations on import and export, on the movement of stock, quarantine restrictions and the reporting of suspected cases.
Vaccines are available against certain diseases, and antibiotics are widely used where appropriate. At one time, antibiotics were routinely added to certain compound foodstuffs to promote growth, but this practice is now frowned on in many countries because of the risk that it may lead to antibiotic resistance. Animals living under intensive conditions are particularly prone to internal and external parasites; increasing numbers ofsea liceare affecting farmed salmon in Scotland. Reducing the parasite burdens of livestock results in increased productivity and profitability.
1.Anthrax
Anthrax, a highly infectious and fatal disease of cattle, is caused by a relatively large spore-forming rectangular shaped bacterium called Bacillus anthracis. Anthrax causes acute mortality in ruminants. The bacteria produce extremely potent toxins which are responsible for the ill effects, causing a high mortality rate. Signs of the illness usually appear 3 to 7 days after the spores are swallowed or inhaled. Once signs begin in animals, they usually die within two days.
Anthrax in cattle – Most common animal diseases
Hoofed animals, such as deer, cattle, goats, and sheep, are the main animals affected by this disease. They usually get the disease by swallowing anthrax spores while grazing on pasture contaminated (made impure) with anthrax spores. Inhaling (breathing in) the spores, which are odorless, colorless, and tasteless, may also cause infection in animals and people.
Symptoms:
Sudden death (often within 2 or 3 hours of being apparently normal) is by far the most common sign;
Very occasionally some animals may show trembling, a high temperature
Difficulty breathing, collapse and convulsions before death. This usually occurs over a period of 24 hours;
After death blood, may not clot, resulting in a small amount of bloody discharge from the nose, mouth and other openings
Treatment and control
Due to the acute nature of the disease resulting in sudden death, treatment is usually not possible in animals even though Anthrax bacilli are clines. Treatment is of use in cases showing sub-acute form of the disease.
In most cases, early treatment can cure anthrax. The cutaneous (skin) form of anthrax can be treated with common antibiotics.
Preventive measures:
Regular annual vaccination of animals in endemic areas will prevent the disease from occurring.
Vaccination may be carried out at least a month prior to expected disease occurrence in endemic areas.
Never open a carcass of an animal suspected to have died from anthrax.
Contact a veterinarian immediately if the following symptoms are seen and seek advice on control measures to be adopted.
2.Black quarter (black-leg)
It is an acute infectious and highly fatal, bacterial disease of cattle. Buffaloes, sheep and goats are also affected. Young cattle between 6-24 months of age, in good body condition are mostly affected. It is soil-borne infection which generally occurs during rainy season. In India, the disease is sporadic (1-2 animal) in nature.
Causal organism
it is a bacterial disease caused by Clostridium chauvoei
Symptoms:
Fever (106-108°F), Loss of appetite, Depression and dullness
Suspended rumination
Rapid pulse and heart rates
Difficult breathing (dyspnoea)
Lameness in affected leg
Crepitation swelling over hip, back & shoulder
Swelling is hot & painful in early stages whereas cold and painless inter.
Recumbency (prostration) followed by death within 12-48 hrs.
Treatment:
Early treatment can be possible to complete cure of the animal.
Consult with veterinarian immediately.
3.Rabies (Mad dog disease)
Rabiesis a disease of dogs, foxes, wolves, hyaenas and in some places, it is a disease of bats which feed on blood.
The disease is passed to other animals or to people if they are bitten by an animal with rabies. The germs which cause rabies live in the saliva of the sick (rabid) animal. This is a killer disease but not every dog which bites is infected with rabies.
When the rabid animal bites another animal or human, the germs which live in its saliva pass into the body through the wound caused by the bite. The germs travel along the nerves to the brain. The time between the bite and the first appearance of signs that the bitten animal or human has been infected can take from 2 to 10 weeks or more. The time taken depends on the distance of the bite from the brain. If the bite is on the face or head, the bitten animal or human will quickly show signs, but if the bite is on the leg it will take much longer for signs to develop.
General signs of rabies
You should first look for the marks of the bite and discover where and when the animal was bitten. All rabid animals show similar signs in the beginning.
they change their normal behaviour and behave very strangely.
They stop eating or drinking.
Male animal will try to mate (mount) other animals.
there is no change in the body temperature.
These signs will continue for 3 to 5 days. Then, before it dies, the animal will develop one or the other of two types of the disease:
the furious (mad) type of the disease makes the animal aggressive and it will bite anything.
The quiet (dumb) type when the animal is quiet and does not move.
Rabies in the dog
Dogs show either of the two types of rabies.
a dog with the dumb or quiet type of the disease cannot move. It looks as if it has a bone stuck in the mouth and saliva drips from the mouth.
rabies in the dog lasts about 10 days before the animal dies. If the animal does not die after this length of time then it may not be suffering from rabies.
Rabies in sheep, goats and cattle
Rabies is characterised by the animals becoming restless and excited. They may bite themselves and saliva drips from the mouth. The most important sign in cattle is that the animal bellows (calls) very frequently and with strange sound. The animals will become paralysed and die.
Rabies in the horse and camel
The horse will show the furious (mad) type of the disease. It will kick and bite and show signs similar to colic. The animal will die after paralysis of the back legs.
In the camel the signs of rabies are similar to those shown by an animal in the rut.
What to do with a biting dog
Remember that not every dog which bites has rabies. If the dog belongs to somebody ask the owner about its normal behaviour. If the dog is showing signs of rabies you must inform your veterinary officer immediately. The dog must be shot and if it has bitten anybody, they must be taken to a hospital immediately for vaccination.
Control of rabies
Dogs in your community can be vaccinated against rabies. You should ask your veterinary service about vaccination against rabies. If there is an outbreak of rabies, the livestock in your community can be vaccinated too.
Treatment (ethnovet practices) :
Leaves of chirchra (Achyranthes aspera) 100gm and onion 50 gm are ground well and smeared over the bitten place. The extract of these ingredients is administered orally twice in a day.
4.Blue tongue
Bluetongue, a disease which is transmitted by midges, infects domestic and wild ruminants and also camelids, however sheep are particularly badly affected. Cattle, although infected more frequently than sheep, do not always show signs of disease. Virus spreads between animals occurs via the midges of Cullicoides species.
The likelihood of mechanical transmission between herds and flocks, or indeed within a herd or flock, by unhygienic practices (the use of contaminated surgical equipment or hypodermic needles) may be a possibility.
Clinical signs
Sheep : eye and nasal discharges, drooling, high body temperature, swelling in mouth, head and neck, lameness and wasting of muscles in hind legs, haemorrages into or under skin, inflammation of the coronary band, respiratory problems, fever, lethargy.
In cattle: nasal discharge, swelling of head and neck, conjunctivitis, swelling inside and ulceration of the mouth, swollen teats, tiredness, saliva drooling, fever.
Note: a blue tongue is rarely a clinical sign of infection
Control
Inspect stock closely, particularly focusing on the lining of the mouth and nose and the coronary band (where the hoof stops and the skin starts). If an animal is suspected as having bluetongue, it must be reported as quickly as possible. Telephone your local animal health office immediately.
Preventive measures and treatment (ethovet):
Since the animal is not taking any feed the starvation may lead to death. So the animal has to be administered orally the following food. Banana fruits (one) smeared with sesame oil (50 ml) for 2 to 3 times. By this animal will recover little. However, this will not control the disease fully. Next the leaf pulp of “sothukathalai”(Aloe vera) has to be administered daily.
Administering of Aloe vera has to be continued for more days till the animal fully recovers from this disease. By this treatment the infected animal will recover from the disease. The disease will not spread to other animals if all animals are administered with Aloe vera as a preventive treatment. Administering aloe vera also increases the body weight of animals as it is against all intestinal parasite.
5.Pox
Epidemiology : sheep-pox is a highly contagious disease. It causes a mortality of 20 to 50 per cent in animals below the age of 6 months, and causes damage to the wool and skin in adults. Of the pock diseases, sheep-pox ranks only second to human small-pox in virulence. The disease is transmissible to in-contact goats but not to other species of animals. It, however, spreads slowly.
Symptoms : The disease in characterized by high fever, and symptoms of pneumonia and acute enteritis. Skin lesions appear particularly in parts free from wool, notably around the eyes, inner side of the thigh, udder and under surface of the tail. The internal organs such as trachea, lungs, kidneys and intestines are also affected. The disease results in emaciation and, as already mentioned, frequent deaths of affected animals.
Treatment, prevention and control
The diseased animal should be treated with palliatives. In the young ones nursing is more important than medication. The infected litter should be burnt and the bedding changed every day. Affected animals should be kept on soft diet. The ulcers on the skin should be washed with potassium permanganate lotion and dusted with boric acid; strict hygienic measures should be adopted.
Preventive measures and treatment (ethnovet)
External application of paste prepared by grinding neem leaves, tulsi leaves each 100 gm and turmeric powder- 50gm sprinkled with sufficient water. Continue for 3 to 5 days. Administer orally the same mixture by diluting with water.
6.Tetanus
This is an infectious, non-febrile disease of animals and man, and is characterized by spasmodic tetany and hyperaesthesia. This disease is prevalent all over the world.
Transmission
Infection takes place by contamination of wounds. Deep punctured wounds provide favourable conditions for the spores to germinate, multiply and produce toxin which is subsequently absorbed in the animal body. The micro-organism is present in soil and in animal faeces, and is carried into the wound by a penetrating object. The organism is present in the intestine of normal animals, and under some undetermined conditions multiplies rapidly and produces toxin in sufficient quantities to be absorbed and cause the disease.
Symptoms
The incubation period is generally 1-2 weeks but it may be as short as 3 days. Tetanus affects many species of domesticated animals but occurs particularly in horses and lambs; less frequently in adult sheep, goats, cattle, pigs, dog and cats; and rarely in poultry. The initial symptoms are mild stiffness and an unwillingness to move all the animals. More severe symptoms develop after 12-24 hours which are stiffness of limbs, neck, head, tail and twitching of muscles. The spasms develop in response to noise. In terminal stages ears are erect, nostrils dilated, nictitating membrane protruded. Mastication becomes very difficult because mouth cannot be opened, hence the name lockjaw.
Treatment
The treatment is carried out by first injecting antitoxin then treating the wound. Penicillin parenterally is beneficial. Muscular relaxation is achieved by injection of relaxants. The animal should be kept in a dark room and fed with the help of stomach tube.
Control
Proper hygiene and cleanliness at castration and other surgical procedures should be observed. Sheep should be given 2 injections based 3 weeks apart to develop a solid immunity.
7.Johne`s disease
Johne`s disease is a specific chronic contagious enteritis of cattle, sheep, goat, buffaloes and occasionally of pigs. The disease is characterized by progressive emaciation and in cattle and buffaloes by chronic diarrhea and thickening of the intestine.
Transmission
Under natural conditions the disease spread by ingestion of feed and water contaminated by the faeces of infected animals. The infection occurs mostly in the early month of life. The incubation period extends from 12 months to several years. The animal aged 3 to 6 years mostly suffer from the disease. Affected animals may not show clinical symptoms continue to discharge organisms in faeces.
The organisms persist in pastures for about 1 year. The organisms are susceptible to sunlight, drying and high ph of soil; continuous contact of urine with faeces reduces the life of bacteria. In cattle clinical signs appear mainly during 2-6 years of age. The infected animals which are apparently healthy, often show clinical signs after parturition.
Treatment
the organisms is more resistant to chemotherapeutic agents invitro than mycotuberculosis. Because of this the practical utility of treatment in clinical cases is poor.
Control
The affected animal should be segregated and their faeces properly disposed off. Alive vaccine has been developed. It reduces the incidence of clinical disease. It consists of a non-pathogenic strain of jhone`s bacillus with an adjuvant. The calves soon after birth are inoculated with vaccine subcontaneously. The vaccinated animals become reactors of jhonin. Vaccination is generally done in heavily infected herds.
8.Footrot
Foot rot is a common cause of lameness in cattle and occurs most frequently when cattle on pasture are forced to walk through mud to obtain water and feed. However, it may occur among cattle in paddocks as well, under apparently excellent conditions.
Foot rot is caused when a cut or scratch in the skin allows infection to penetrate between the claws or around the top of the hoof. Individual cases should be kept in a dry place and treated promptly with medication as directed by a veterinarian.
If the disease becomes a herd problem a foot bath containing a 5% solution of copper sulphate placed where cattle are forced to walk though it once or twice a day will help to reduce the number of new infections. In addition, drain mud holes and cement areas around the water troughs where cattle are likely to pick up the infection. Keep pens and areas where cattle gather as clean as possible. Proper nutrition regarding protein, minerals and vitamins will maximize hoof health.
9.Bovine rhinotracheitis
Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (ibr) is a highly contagious, infectious respiratory disease that is caused by bovine herpesvirus-1 (bhv-1). It can affect young and older cattle. In addition to causing respiratory disease, this virus can cause conjunctivitis, abortions, encephalitis, and generalised systemic infections. Ibr is characterized by acute inflammation of the upper respiratory tract.
Treatment
There is no direct treatment for viral diseases. Infected animals should be isolated from the rest of the herd and treated with anti-inflammatory drugs and antibiotics for secondary infections if necessary. Carrier cattle should be identified and removed from the herd.
Prevention
Control of the disease is based on the use of vaccines.
10.Ringworm
This is the most common infectious skin disease affecting beef cattle. It is caused by a fungus, and is transmissible to man. Typically, the disease appears as crusty grey patches usually in the region of the head and neck and particularly around the eyes.
As a first step in controlling the disease, it is recommended that, whenever possible, affected animals should be segregated and their pens or stalls cleaned and disinfected. Clean cattle which have been in contact with the disease should be watched closely for the appearance of lesions and treated promptly.
Proper nutrition, particularly high levels of vitamin a, copper and zinc while not a cure, will help to raise the resistance of the animal and in so doing offer some measure of control. Contact your vet and or feed store for products to treat this disease. Using a wormer like ivomec will kill lice and help prevent cattle from scratching causing skin damage and a place for the fungus to enter.
Humanistic theoryis a principle based on the appreciation of other human beings, unconditionally, for their self-fulfilment in life. Humanistic learning theory which came to effect after the behaviourist and the psychoanalysis theories. Hence, it is the duty of this section to discuss the Humanistic learning theory by looking at what it is, key principles and its influence on education.
The Humanistic learning theory as already alluded to, is one that came after theBehaviouristand Psychoanalysis theories where the later sought to understand human beings by analysing the deep unobservable unconscious processes and the former sought to understand human beings by looking at the changes in the outward observable behaviour. Humanism is a paradigm, a philosophy and pedagogical approach that believes learning is viewed as a personal act to fulfill one’s potential. The Humanistic learning theory’s birth is traceable from the likes of Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. It is worth noting that this theory took a different approach in the study of human beings.
Humanisticis understood in the principles of humanism; a belief in human based morality which is a system of thought that is based on the values, characteristics and behaviour that are believed to be best in human beings rather than on any super natural authority, a concern with the needs, wellbeing, and interest of the people.
It is also known as the‘Third Force Psychology’as represented in the work of American psychologist Carl Rogers, which views personal growth and mental health as the natural condition of human life. The humanistic school view every human being to possess a drive toward self-actualisation which is the fulfilment of a person’s greatest potential.
The works of Maslow (1970) and Santrock (2008) attest to the fact that human beings have the potential to attain or move toward self-actualisation. It is this inner propensity to grow and develop in every person that makes humanistic psychology to remain with no option apart from it embracing a positive or optimistic view of all people. As a result of people’s ability to move towards self-actualisation humanistic psychology, therefore, attaches a lot of emphasis on having an unconditional positive regard toward all people.
The Humanistic theory as already alluded to, is one that came after the Behaviourist and Psychoanalysis theories where the later sought to understand human beings by analysing the deep unobservable unconscious processes and the former sought to understand human beings by looking at the changes in the outward observable behaviour. The Humanistic learning theory’s birth is traceable from the likes of Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. It is worth noting that this theory took a different approach in the study of human beings.
HUMANISTIC THEORY OF LEARNING
MAIN CONCEPTION OF THE HUMANISTIC THEORY OF LEARNING
Humanism is the school of thought that lays emphasis on human behaviour and human centred education. It is concerned with the individual’s feelings, perceptions, beliefs and purposes. Humanist psychologists believe that human beings determine their own behaviour. One of the main proponents of this theory was Carl Rogers.
CARL ROGERS HUMANISTIC LEARNING PRINCIPLES
1. The desire to learn
Human beings have a natural desire to learn. Therefore, failure to learn is not due to the person’s inability to learn, but rather it is due to problems with the learning situation or environment. In the humanistic classroom, learners are given the freedom to satisfy their curiosity, to pursue their interests and to discover for themselves what is important and meaningful about their environment.
2. Significant learning
Significant or meaningful learning takes place when it is perceived by learners as being relevant to their own needs and purposes. The humanists regard learning as a dual process that involves both the acquisition of new information and the personalization of this information. Students learn best when learning is personally significant.
3. Learning without threat
Rogers argued that learning is best acquired and retained in an environment that is free from threats. The learning process is enhanced when students test their abilities, try new experiences or even when they make mistakes without experiencing any criticism.
4. Self-initiated learning
Learning makes sense when it is self-initiated and when it involves both the feelings and mind of the learners. Choosing one’s own learning is highly motivating and provides the student opportunity to“learn how to learn”and a sense of independence.
5. Whole-person learning
Learning must involve all aspects of the person: the cognitive, practical and affective aspects. This creates a feeling of total accomplishment or all –round development.
6. Learning and change
Learning must be suitable to the changing environment. Since knowledge is in a constant state of change every day and that yesterday’s learning may not enable a person to function successfully in the modern world, an individual must be capable of learning in a changing environment.
Carl Rogers identified two categories of learning, namely, meaningless (cognitive) and meaningful (experiential) learning.
Meaningless or cognitive learning
It involves academic knowledge and there is no personal learning for the individual. Since it only involves the mind, this type of learning has no relevance for the whole person.
Meaningful or Significant or Experiential Learning
This learning involves applied knowledge, such as how to repair something (e.g. a car). It is the learning that addresses the needs and wants of the learner, and thus has the qualities of personal involvement, self-initiation, self-evaluation and long –last9ing effects.
To Rogers, experiential learning is equivalent to personal development. In his view, all human beings have the natural propensity to learn. And so it is the teachers role to facilitate that learning by encouraging, clarifying and organizing learning resources, but not to impose their own view of knowledge on their students. Rogers suggested that learning is facilitated: –
When the student participates in the learning process, having control over its nature and direction;
When learning is primarily based on confrontation with real problems, whether they are social, personal, scientific or practical problems;
When learners are required to use self-evaluation to assess their progress.
Experiential education, or“learning by doing”is the process of actively engaging learners in an authentic experience that has benefits and consequences. Learners make discoveries and experiment with knowledge themselves, instead of hearing or reading about the experiences of others. Learners also reflect on their experiences, thus developing new skills, attitudes and ways of thinking. Experiential education also empowers learners to take responsibility for their own learning.
Instructional implications of humanistic theory
Learning should be person centred. The curriculum, content and teaching methods should be responsive to the learners’ feelings and personal development. There must be good interaction between the learners and teachers during teaching and learning. In order to further promote humanistic learning, the following instructional strategies and methods may be used:
Provide learners with a variety of resources that can support and guide their learning experiences.
Make use of peer tutoring. This involves learners teaching one another for the mutual benefit of the student tutor and student tutee.
Use discovery learning to allow learners to seek answers to real questions, make their own discoveries and become involved in self – directed learning.
Role of the humanistic teacher
Carl Rogers made significant contributions to the field of education with his theory of experiential learning. Experiential learning’s key idea involves engaging student voice in active roles for the purpose of learning. The experiential learning mindset changes the way the teachers and students view knowledge. Knowledge is no longer just some information on paper. It becomes active, something that is dealt with in real life situations. It starts to make teachers become experience providers, and not just transmitters of the written word. Students become knowledge creators as well as knowledge gatherers.
Besides changing the roles of students, experiential education requires a change in the role of teachers. Teachers become active learners too, experimenting together with their students, reflecting upon the learning activities they have designed, and responding to their student’s reactions to the activities.
In humanistic education, the teacher’s role is mainly that of the facilitator. Teachers have to create a conducive learning atmosphere by encouraging students, clarifying issues and organizing learning resources. They also have to have to demonstrate realness or genuineness, i.e., to be honest in their relationship with learners.
Teachers also need to be trustworthy so that learners can feel free to explore with support from teachers. Teachers need to be empathetic to the learners, i.e., to put themselves in the place of learners and experience the learners’ perceptions and feelings.
To conclude, it should be noted that the humanistic theory of learning emphasizes democratic and discovery methods of teaching and learning. It encourages the involvement of pupils in the learning process. There should be unconditional positive regard because people function well when accepted as they are. Therefore, positive attitudes like love, respect, tolerance and acceptance are important in the learning-teaching process.
How does learning comes about;
There are three main divergent views among psychologist on how learning comes about: these are categorised as:
(i) behaviourism
(ii) Social constructivism
(iii) cognitivism
Munsaka (2011:53) writes:“Humanistic psychology was designed as a general theory to explain how the full human potential can be tapped from all human beings, regardless of who or what they are”.In this, it is seen that the Humanistic theory can be appreciated that it is one theory that is designed to give room to human beings in the category of learning so that self-actualisations, a paramount parameter in the development of human beings is realised. This is in line with what Maslow (1970) contributed that the focus of the Humanistic perspectives is on the self which translates individuals’ perception into their experience thereby individuals have the freedom to choose their own behaviours rather than reacting to environmental stimuli and reinforcers.
It is worth learning that the Humanistic theory is aimed at tapping the full potential of human beings where the whole rounded development of learners is sought for. This is also supported by Woolfolk (2010) where he observes that Humanistic theory is concerned with personal growth and the full development of each human’s potential not just at intellectual level but also at emotional, psychological, creative, social, physical and spiritual levels.
With this, the physiological needs, psychological needs, spiritual needs, social needs, creative needs and emotional needs can be monitored. In all these needs, it will be to the knowledge of the teacher to understand that limitations in any of the above mentioned needs will result into impaired learning. Hence, under Humanistic theory of learning, a teacher is better positioned because learners’ achievements or failures will be understood accordingly where a moderated room for learning is created for the less privileged so that full potential of all learners is achieved.
Humanistic theory is different from other theories bordering on the three key principles:
– Humanistic psychology unlike other theories takes a positive or optimistic view of all people.
– Humanistic psychology views each human being as a unique whole.
– Humanistic psychology believes each person’s perspective or point of view should be respected. It places a lot of emphasis on having an unconditional positive regard toward, all people…
In this, it is learnt that every child has the potential to learn; hence the teacher should not judge negatively or positively depending on the outward appearance. They should instead strive to motivate learners into complete use of their full potentials.
Principles of Humanistic Education
There are five basic principles of humanistic education:
Students should be able to choose what they want to learn. Humanistic teachers believe that students will be motivated to learn a subject if it is something they need and want to know.
The goal of education should be to foster students’ desire to learn and teach them how to learn. Students should be self-motivated in their studies and desire to learn on their own.
Humanistic educators believe that grades are irrelevant and that only self-evaluation is meaningful. Grading encourages students to work for a grade and not for personal satisfaction. In addition, humanistic educators are opposed to objective tests because they test a student’s ability to memorize and do not provide sufficient educational feedback to the teacher and student.
Humanistic educators believe that both feelings and knowledge are important to the learning process. Unlike traditional educators, humanistic teachers do not separate the cognitive and affective domains.
Humanistic educators insist that schools need to provide students with nonthreatening environment so that they will feel secure to learn. Once students feel secure, learning becomes easier and more meaningful.
APPLICATION OF HUMANISTIC THEORY TO EDUCATION SYSTEM
Appreciating the fact that the Humanistic theory was designed as a general theory to explain how human beings’ full potential can be tapped to acknowledge the importance of the theory in the classroom:
Facilitator helps to establish the climate of the class attitude towards learning.
(1) The facilitator unconditionally helps the class or individuals classify their purposes.
(2) The facilitator helps each student utilise her/his own drives and purposes as the driving force in learning.
(3) The facilitator provides a wide range of resources for learning.
(4) The facilitator provides students with content which is relevant to the learner’s needs and interests, to give them control over their own learning and to equip them for the future by teaching them how to learn and how to solve problems.
In addition to the above stated application of humanistic theory to the learning environment, educators who embrace humanistic theory of learning should not condemn learners based on their past mistakes or behaviour, but instead focus on the present state of the learners and see how best to help them progress. After all, humanistic psychology holds the belief that the present is the most important aspect of the person thereby focusing on the here and now rather than looking at the past or trying to predict the future.
Furthermore, teachers should create a learning environment that will enable pupils become psychologically health. At the same time, educators should train learners to take responsibility over their own achievements. This is due to the fact that humanistic theory is reality based where learners should be responsible for their actions whether those actions ate positive or negative.
Lastly but not the least, the aim of educators should not only centre on making pupils obtain super grades during examinations but also to create a conducive learning environment where learners will be able to achieve personal growth and understanding through self-improvement and self-knowledge.
Research Topics and title formulation are the landmark or starting point of the research activity and the initial step to the research success. The subject matter one selects is vital in the success of the research report. This is because one’s interest in the topic will uphold the research. It is therefore undoubtedly important to look at the research proposal and report writing by starting from it’s the roots and basis on which the whole investigation itself is laid.
Research topic
Title is not to be confused with topic. In research the term ‘topic’ means the field area your research is conducted in. In other words, the topic is the subject-matter, or the problem under investigation, which may be a wider domain of study area such as: ICT use in education, IQ testing in primary education, etc. where you intend to conduct the research. This can also consist of current issues in your domain, namely education.
Research topic and title selection
In this case, for instance, the increase in the number of pregnancies in secondary education, drug or alcohol abuse among the school children, HIV/AIDS effect on education, gender issues awareness, decentralisation in education sector, school curriculum change, bullying issue in schools, etc. can constitute your research topics. From each one of the above topics various titles can be formulated by narrowing the topic and singling out one of its aspects which interests or preoccupies you most and conduct an investigation on that particular aspect.The Research topic selection process will uniquely be governed by the researcher’s interest. This is because if a researcher is interested in a particular area, he/she will enjoy reading materials related to that subject, and will put time and effort into the work. Topic selection should not be the matter of trying to please someone, but what you like and feel comfortable to work on.All research requires painstaking thought, writing, and reading before the proposal/report is finalised. If the researcher is interested in the topic, this will be an exciting venture. It is therefore imperative that a researcher selects a topic that interests him/her. In order to effectively selection your topic, you should follow the procedure below:
1. Reflect on the issue in your area of study which attracts your interest or riddles you
There are many issues in life that may riddle or interest a researcher. These may be social, economic, health, political or cultural issues. However, it is important to identify a puzzling aspect in one’s area of study. This not only enables the researcher to go in-depth in one’s professional area, but also to defend the researched work with authority.For example, before deciding on an area of study, a student in the department of Sociology may be puzzled as to why people still consume illicit brews despite the dangers experienced and the warnings given by the government. A student in the department of Curriculum Development may be puzzled as to why, despite the reduction of examinable subjects at the primary level, pupils are still overworked.A doctor may be puzzled as to why, despite awareness creation on malaria prevention and the provisions of mosquito nets to a certain district, malaria prevalence was still high. A student in the department of Religious Studies may be puzzled at the mushrooming of churches in Zambia. An educationist may be puzzled about free primary education and school accessibility, retention and performance. These are fertile grounds in which students can identify research topics.
Key out some words to make up your topic
The researcher should then zero down to the real aspect puzzling him/her and express it in specific keywords. These keywords can include words representing the issue that has puzzled the researcher. For example if the researcher is puzzled about illicit brews, the keywords may be increase of illicit brews. The keywords for the student in Curriculum Development department may be curriculum reduction verses student overwork.The doctor’s keywords may be awareness creation verses malaria prevalence. For the student in education, the keywords may be free primary education, school accessibility, retention and performance. The researcher should think of what to concentrate on based on these words.
Now define your topic
After identifying the keywords the researcher wants to concentrate on, he/she has to define the topic. Defining the topic involves analysing selected keywords keenly. Out of these keywords there are a number of topics that can be studied. For example on illicit brews, the researcher has to decide on what to concentrate on, whether it is causes and effects or the costs. A researcher analysing student overwork may study the causes and effects or analyse the implementation aspect.At this point, the researcher has to filter and come up with the topic to be studied. For example, on the issue of free primary education, the researcher may decide to concentrate on free primary education and student accessibility, or free primary education and student retention, or free primary education and learners’ performance or all of the above, thus analysing free primary education and school accessibility, retention and performance. The researcher has to identify specifically what he/she wants to concentrate on. This enables the study to be focused.
Finally, articulate your topic
After identifying and defining the topic, the researcher should formulate it. For example the drug abuse among youths in Zambia. The researcher should search for articles and other materials relevant to the research topic. This information will assist the researcher develop clarity over the topic selected.
This will also assist the researcher in the formulation of the research problem later on. The researcher should take notes, paraphrase and summarise what has been read on relevant materials. This will be included in the literature review. Relevant information related to the selected topic can be found in a library or the Internet.
How should a best topic look like? (Introduction in Research)
A good research topic has the following qualities:
It should be easily explorable: That means it is a subject where the research instruments can be easily formulated and the study population sampled. The objectives that will be formulated based on the topic are measurable.
It should be interesting to the researcher: The topic selected should be one that the researcher has an interest in.
It should contribute to the body of knowledge: A good research topic is one in which the researcher is aware that the findings of the study will contribute to the body of knowledge.
It should be exciting and leave room for debate: It is open to varied views and interpretations.
It should be unambiguous: The topic is not vague or alien to the researcher.
What to avoid while choosing a topic
Selecting a topic in research is essential and requires a lot of care. This is because the topic selected has a lot of influence on the success of the project/study. There are various challenges encountered in research topics selection, and some have resulted in researchers abandoning the project halfway, or the project taking longer to be completed than anticipated. The following are some of the problems encountered in topic selection.
Your topic should not be broad
A researcher may select a research area that is too wide and fail to limit the scope. This occurs due to underestimating the dimension of the topic. For example, ‘The effects of climate change’. This topic may be problematic since the effects of climate change and its intensity varies by region and gender.
The impact of climate change in Chipata may not be similar to its impact in Lusaka. It is also vague since the effect of climate change on education may be different from its effect on politics. A topic such as Truancy in schools may also be problematic unless the scope is clearly specified.This topic may be too wide because the causes and effects of truancy on education vary by gender and region. Truancy also has diverse effects on school accessibility, retention and academic performance. It may be impossible for this researcher to conduct an in-depth study.To avoid selecting a topic that is too wide, the researcher should be very clear and focused on what they want to research. If it is issues related to climate change or truancy, then they have to be very certain on what they want to investigate in relation to climate change or truancy and make that the focus of the study.
Your topic should be somehow simplified and not too requiring
It is a wise idea to choose a topic which does not require too large sample size, covering too long distance to collect data or any other requirement for research. Your chosen topic should not the one requiring too sophisticated methods for your level of study or available resources.For instance a study on ‘Consumer reaction to price increases’ may require a large population sample. A study on ‘The mushrooming of private schools in Zambia’ is complex in that it requires clear definition of the term “mushrooming.” A single researcher cannot usually undertake this type of research. It may require different approaches and a lot of capital besides expertise. This topic may present the researcher with problems particularly during data collection and analysis.
Choose a topic which is time effective
Most research works have a limited time span for which data should be collected and presented. Failure to adhere to this may lead to disqualifications or penalties. Some topics, for example, Effects of free primary education over a five year period may not be feasible for a master’s, or bachelor’s degree programme.
This is mainly because for these programmes students usually have two years or less to conduct their research. If for some reasons, gathering information will take many months or even years, then the topic may not be suitable, particularly if the researcher has a specific deadline to meet.
Choose a cost effective research topics, whose data and research materials are easily available.
A particular topic may prove unsuitable simply because there is no ready accessibility to the requisite source materials. It is common for some source materials not to be made available for some years after an event or during the lifetime of an individual. Other materials may not be available in libraries.
Some research works have been delayed or changed due to the problem of unavailability of subjects. For example, a study based on Aids patients at UTH may not be easy as accessibility to respondents may be limited. The patients may also feel an invasion of privacy and refuse to respond.Topic selection is vital in proposal writing as it contributes to the success of the research. The researcher should therefore ensure that he/she is certain about the topic to be researched, is interested in the topic and the required materials and resources are available.
Research Title
As defined by Kombo and Tromp (2006), a title is a tag or brand or heading. It describes what the study is all about. Smith (2011) advances that the title informs both the researcher and the reader about what they expect to get out of the research study.The research title should be concise and state clearly the purpose of the study. The essential elements to be included in the title are the major variables and the target population. These should be phrased in such a way as to describe what the study is all about. You should not state your title so broadly that it may claim more than it can actually deliver. For instance, sex differences in the enrolment of SGCE candidates in Technical Drawing from 2004 to 2007, or “The effect of group discussions on learning outcomes in the Open and Distance Education system”. You can note the variables here.Look at the two more examples of research title:
Impact of Piaget’s theory on curriculum implementation. A case of selected grade 2 and 3 classes in primary schools in Lusaka district.
Abortion in Livingstone: An examination of its causes and effects on female students in secondary schools.
In the above examples, Piaget’s theory and abortion are independent variable while curriculum implementation and the effects of abortion are dependent variables.There are a number of things to consider when selecting a research title. You may start by discussing some topical issues in society which may include such matters as businesses that are not making any profit, the effect of business location on the success of a business, insecurity in urban and rural areas or the mushrooming of churches. In business management a researcher may analyse factors hindering the success of income generating activities. Note that it is only after selecting the topic of your interest that you can formulate the research title.In order to effectively select your research title, you should follow the steps below:
Choose the keywords to include in the title: Before selecting the title, the researcher should identify key issues in the topic the researcher is interested in.
Think over the main issues from your topic: The researcher should brainstorm the key issues identified. This includes attempting to find out the independent and dependent variables. For example if the researcher is puzzled over price increase and commodity consumption, questions that the researcher should attempt to answer are:
Does price increase affect consumption?
Does price increase influence consumption?
Does consumption influence price increase?
The researcher will attempt to find out how these issues can be linked to form a title.
Now phrase your research title: After you are clear about the independent and dependent variables, the title you will also be clear to formulate the title. The formulation of the title involves trying to link the key variables. This can be formulated by using terms such as The effect of…, The impact of…, An assessment of…, for instance, The effect of price increase on consumption or The effect of free primary education on school accessibility.
Evaluate you formulated title: After formulating the title, you will have to ensure that it is clear and specific. This means the independent and dependent variables are easily identified (variables will be discussed later). For example, if the title is on the effect of price increase on consumption the researcher may specify it as ‘The effect of price increase on sugar consumption in Zambia’. If the title is on free primary education, the title can be ‘The effect of free primary education on student accessibility, retention and academic performance’.
Characteristics of an effective title
An effective research title should portray the following qualities:
Briefness and specificity: For example looking at the title, ‘The impact of drug abuse on education’. This brevity makes the title stand out and have a strong impact. It is easier to identify the independent and dependent variables. The title becomes clear and focused.
Objective-orientedness: The title is a brief summary of what the study is about. It should portray the aims and objectives of the study. The words used in the title should clearly reflect the focus of the study.
Clarity and unambiguity: The title should not lead to various interpretations of the study.
Variables-Linking: The title should reflect a relationship between the independent and dependent variables, for example, the effect of price increase on food consumption.
Portraying a researchable issue: The aspects described in the title should be measurable.
Note that some of the most common fallout of research title selection include, choosing a title which is vague, too wordy, and difficult to understand or explain. Furthermore, the formulated title should not in any way deviate from your topic and ought to be consistent with all the main parts of research, including problem statement, purpose, research questions, hypotheses, objectives as well as the methodology used.
The World’s Top 40 Universities according to QS World University Rankings
You want to study in one of the top Universities Worldwide in Africa or regionally? Here is a guide, in this article. With the help of different world ranking, including QS World University Rankings and Global Universities Rankings, we shall list the best universities in reputation. For the global ranking, in this year, a total of 1,029 universities, by QS and 1,750 by Global Universities Rankings, were taken into consideration. You can click to follow the links to find out more about the criteria used to classify these universities
The main indicators used in this ranking amounted to 13 and are meant to measure their academic research performance and their global and regional reputations. Read the methodology »
Let us start with the best 40 top Universities in the World according to the QS World University Rankings 2022
Top universities in the World, Africa, Zambia and Rwanda
Top 40 Universities in the WorldAccording to the QS World University Rankings 2022
This is a ranking established by Webometrics and the methodology used to rank these top universities, includes
Excellence rank– Considered the excellent publications i.e. the University publication on the scientific field. It should be notable that quality and not Quantity was used in the rank
Presence rank-The hosted a number of WebPages in the main domain including sub-domain was used to determine this ranking
Openness rank– In this indicator, the effort to start up institutional research is the methodology used. It takes into account the number of affluent files published to dedicated websites according to search engines
Strathmore University
National University of Rwanda
University of Nairobi
Kenyatta University
Ugandan Christian University
Pwani University College
Makerere University
Sudan University of Science and Technology
Uganda Martyrs University
Islamic University in Uganda
Another view of ranking resulted in the following list:
This post discusses the difference parts of Research Methodology; it begins by giving an overview of the research design of the study. It then gives the population of the study and sample size; it then goes on to give the tools and instruments to be used to collect data, , data analysis and research Ethics. A research methodology therefore is a broad term involving all strategies that describe how, when and where data is to be collected and analysed.
Research Methodology
Research Design
Patton (1990) explains research design as a plan of scientific research from the first to the last step, meaning that it is a program designed to guide the research in collecting, and analysing data.
EXAMPLE 1
The research design that will be used for this study is a case study, A case study is defined as “…a holistic research method that uses multiple sources of evidence to analyse or evaluate specific phenomenon or instance” (Patton, 1990: 60). The case study will be used because it will enable the researcher to have an in-depth understanding of causes and effects of abortion on secondary school students.
Population
In Research Methodology, population consists of all the numbers of a hypothetical set of people, event or object to which we wish to generalize the results of our research.
EXAMPLE 1
All secondary school female students who have aborted will comprise the study population. Sample
A sample can be described as a group of subjects from who the data will be collected.
EXAMPLE 1
The sample will be comprised of 110 girls who have aborted before.
Sampling procedure
A sampling procedure is a technique that shows how the sample or subjects that are representative of the population will be selected.
Example 1
The study will use purposeful sampling. The purposive sampling is a non-probability sampling technique in which the researcher’s judgment about some appropriate characteristics is required of the sample members. Purposeful sampling will be used because it allows the researcher to only include the respondents that have the desired characteristics that suit the study
Data collection procedure/method
In Research Methodology, data collection refers to the process of finding information for the research problems.
Example 1
The study will use semi structured interviews in data collection. The researcher will conduct interviews in secondary schools. The semi-structured interviews will be used because the instrument is reliable for collecting sensitive information. The instrument also allows the researcher to probe or ask follow up questions to the respondents.
Data Analysis
In research Methodology, data analysis refers to the quantitative or qualitative process that is used to draw meaning and conclusions from: the collected information that relate to the particular area or field of study (McMillan and Schumacher, 2006).
Example
The study will use qualitative data analysis procedures. The data will be qualitatively categorised, compared, synthesized and interpreted in themes to provide an explanation of causes and effects of abortion among secondary school girls.
Ethics in the research Methodology
Ethics refers to moral values or the way people distinguish right from wrong, what is supposed to be done and what not is supposed to be done.
Example 1
The researcher will seek clearance from the University of Zambia ethics committee by way of asking for an introductory letter before going for data collection. The researcher will explain the aim of the research and ask the participants to sign the informed consent form without duress.
The participants will also be assured of confidentiality and privacy of all the information that they will provide. Anonymity of names also be observed by not disclosing respondents’ names. There will be an assurance that the information collected would be kept in privacy and that it would be used for no other purpose than academic research.
Please you can get supporting note to study more from the free and premiumcoursesavailable for you. Moreover, you can visit ourforumto ask some questions or contribute answers to the already asked questions. That’s not all, You may also create a topic and invite your friends to come and contribute to the answers you are looking for.
Please you can get supporting note to study more from the free and premiumcoursesavailable for you. Moreover, you can visit ourforumto ask some questions or contribute answers to the already asked questions. That’s not all, You may also create a topic and invite your friends to come and contribute to the answers you are looking for.
Please you can get supporting note to study more from the free and premiumcoursesavailable for you. Moreover, you can visit ourforumto ask some questions or contribute answers to the already asked questions. That’s not all, You may also create a topic and invite your friends to come and contribute to the answers you are looking for.
