Category: Blog

CARE IN LABORATORIES

Laboratoriesare delicate places. Carelessness can cause serious accidents.

The two most important words to remember when working in a lab are “Be CAUTIOUSandLABORATORY WORK DONE WITHOUT ENOUGH CARE TURNS TO BE UNWORTHY”. It is important to note that:

– Familiarity with materials and equipment being used is important

– Safety equipment like fire extinguishers and first aid kits must be placed where they can be easily located and picked for use in case of accidents

– Ignorance and negligence are two of the major causes of accidents in the laboratory

– Follow the instructions given to you and do all your experiments with utmost precautions

RULES OF DISCIPLINE IN THE LABORATORY

1. Do not enter the laboratory unless you are instructed to do so;
2. Never run or chase each other in the laboratory;
3. Do not leave any object in the passage ways or the floor
4. Never taste any of the chemicals found in the laboratory
5. Never eat or drink anything in the laboratory
6. Do not leave the table or the apparatus untidy. Always clean them and return the apparatus to their proper places;
7. Do not hesitate to seek advice where you are not sure;
8. Do not fail to report any accidents, however small, that occur
9. Do not perform any lab work until you have been briefed.
10. Do not enter instructor stations or the Stockroom unless asked to do so by the staff.

EXPERIMENTS INVOLVING HEAT

Three main sources ofheatthat may be available in the laboratory are:Bunsen burner, spirit lamps and electric hot plates.

They present dangers such as fires explosion, burns and scalds. To avoid the dangers, the techniques below are to be followed:

1. If the substance to be heated in a test is a solid, slant the test tube in such a way that the substance is spread out and does not block the test tube. In addition to this, a Pyrex type of test tube should be preferred when heating
2. When heating a liquid in a test tube:
3. The test tube must not be more than a quarter full
4. Use a wide boiling tube and keep shaking it gently all the time
5. Use a gentle flame to avoid rapid boiling

FIGHTING THE FIRE

In case of fire in the lab, observe the following:

Fight a fire ONLY ifALLof the following are TRUE

• Everyone has left, or is leaving the lab.
• Public Safety has been called (911).
• The fire is very smalland confined. (If the fire is in a beaker or a wastebasket, try to smother it by covering the container. Often, this works quite well and does not require the use of a Fire Extinguisher.)
• You have a way out and you can fight the fire with your back to the Exit.
• The extinguisher is rated for the class of fire you are fighting.
• You can stay close to the floor to avoid breathing too much of the smoke.
• You have had training and you feel confident in the use of the extinguisher, or no other escape alternative is available to you.

It is usually best to have the teacher or lab assistant operate a fire extinguisher if one is needed at all. Much damage can be done by the improper use of a fire extinguisher.

When you are ready to use the extinguisher, you should consider the following:

The key word to operating a fire extinguisher isPASS. This acronym is a good way to remember exactly what to do:

• PULLthe pin. Point the nozzle away from you and release the locking mechanism.
• AIMlow. Hold the extinguisher upright. Aim at the base of the flame. You should be 2 to 3 metres away. If you are too close, you will hit the fire with enough force to scatter it. If you are too far away, you may not reach the fire with enough extinguishing material.
• SQUEEZEthe trigger. Be prepared. The extinguishing agent may come out with considerable force and noise. Most portable extinguishers will last for only 15 to 30 seconds. That is the actual “fighting time” you have. You can prolong the effective fighting time if you use short bursts. If aimed well, they can be very effective.
• SWEEPside-to-side. Drive the fire back. As you extinguish the fire closest to you, move forward, but continue the sweeping motion.

Once the fire is out, you should have your teacher and the lab assistant check on the area. They will assume the responsibility of following up the incident with the appropriate authorities i.e. if necessary. This will include making certain that all persons are out of the area, insuring that another fire extinguisher is nearby in the event of a recurrence of the fire, and making arrangements to replenish the spent extinguisher. Remember you will probably NOT need to use a fire extinguisher at all in your physics laboratory.

Abandon the Fight if ANY of the following are TRUE

• The fire has started to spread.
• Your escape route may be blocked.
• You have any trouble operating the extinguisher.

As you leave the lab,close the doorto prevent spread of the fire andcall 911to be sure help is on the way. Then leave the building and wait in the designated area for help to arrive. (Remember that everyone must be accounted for at the meeting place BEFORE leaving that area. Anyone not found at the meeting area will be presumed trapped inside and someone will attempt a rescue).

CHEMICAL EXPOSURES

The following procedures should be followed in the event of chemical exposure. In all cases, the incident should be reported to the teacher, regardless of severity.

Chemicals on Skin or Clothing

• Immediately flush with water for no less than 15 minutes.
• While rinsing, quickly remove all contaminated clothing or jewellery. Seconds count.
• Discard contaminated clothing or launder them separately from other clothing.
• Do not use solvents to wash skin. They remove the natural protective oils from the skin for they can cause irritation and inflammation.

Chemicals in Eyes

• Immediately flush eye(s) with water for at least fifteen minutes.
• The eyes must be forcibly held open to wash, and the eyeballs must be rotated so all surface area is rinsed.
• The use of an eye wash fountain is desirable so hands are free to hold the eyes open.
• If eyewash is not available, pour water on the eye, rinsing from the nose outward to avoid contamination of the unaffected eye.
• Seek medical attention regardless of the severity or apparent lack of severity.

Chemical Inhalation

• Close containers, open windows or otherwise increase ventilation, and move to fresh air.
• If symptoms, such as headaches, nose or throat irritation, dizziness, or drowsiness persist, seek medical attention immediately.

Accidental Ingestion of Chemicals

• Immediately seek medical assistance.
• Unless directed to do so by a health care provider, you must not induce vomiting to the victim.

Controlling Chemical Exposure, in general involves the use ofpersonal protective equipment

Personal protective equipment (PPE) is a special gear used to protect the one wearing it from specific hazards of a hazardous substance. It is a last resort protection system, to be used when substitution or engineering controls are not feasible. PPE does not reduce or eliminate the hazard but protects only the one wearing it and does not protect anyone else.

EYE PROTECTION

In order to protect your eyes against chemical exposure, the safety Glasses and/ or face shield can be used depending on the exposure level.

(a)Safety glasses

Safely glasses look very much like normal glasses buy have lenses that are impact resistant and frames that are far stronger than standard street wear glasses. Safety glasses must have side shields and should be worn whenever there is the possibility of objects striking the eye, such as particles, glass, or metal shards. Many potential eye injuries can be avoided by wearing safety glasses.

(b)Face Shields

The face shields, are in order when working with large volumes of hazardous Materials, either for protection from splash to the face or flying particles. Face shields must be used in conjunction with safety glasses or goggles.

PROTECTIVE CLOTHING & FOOTWEAR

When the possibility of chemical contamination exists, protective clothing that resists physical and chemical hazards should be worn over street clothes. Lab coats are appropriate for minor chemical splashes and solids contamination, while plastic or rubber aprons are best for protection from corrosive or irritating liquids.

(a)Aprons – Rubber or Plastic

Chemical aprons can provide additional secondary protection. Some operations in the laboratory, like washing glassware, require the handling of relatively large quantities of corrosive liquids in open containers. To protect clothing in such operations, plastic or rubber aprons may be supplied. A high-necked, calf- or ankle-length, rubberised laboratory apron or a long-sleeved, calf- or ankle-length, chemical- and fire-resistant laboratory coat should be worn any time laboratory manipulation or experimentation is being conducted. Always wear long-sleeved and long-legged clothing; do not wear short-sleeved shirts, short trousers, or short skirts.

(b)Lab coats

Loose clothing (such as overlarge lab coats or ties), skimpy clothing (such as shorts), torn clothing and unrestrained hair may pose a hazard in the laboratory. Always wear the lab coat when working in the laboratory.

(c)Protective shoes

Closed-toed shoes should be worn at all times in buildings where chemicals are stored or used. Perforated shoes, sandals or cloth sneakers should not be worn in laboratories or where mechanical work is conducted. Such shoes offer no barrier between the laboratory worker and chemicals or broken glass.

Chemical resistant overshoes or boots may be used to avoid possible exposure to corrosive chemical or large quantities of solvents or water that might penetrate normal footwear (e.g., during spill clean-up). Leather shoes tend to absorb chemicals and may have to be discarded if contaminated with a hazardous material.

(d)Protective gloves

Protective gloves should be worn when handling hazardous materials, chemicals of unknown toxicity, corrosive materials, rough or sharp-edged objects, and very hot or very cold materials. When handling chemicals in a laboratory, disposable latex, vinyl or nitrile examination gloves are usually appropriate for most circumstances. These ‘gloves will offer protection from incidental splashes or contact.

When working with chemicals with high acute toxicity, working with corrosives in high concentrations, handling chemicals for extended periods of time or immersing all or part of a hand into a chemical, the appropriate glove material should be selected, based on chemical compatibility.

FIRST AID IN THE LABORATORY

First aid is the provision of immediate care to a victim with an injury or illness, usually conducted by a lay person, and performed within a limited skill range.

The first aid assistance should be applied until the injury or illness is satisfactorily dealt with (such as in the case of small cuts, minor bruises, and blisters) or until the next level of care, such as an ambulance or when a doctor arrives.

The key guiding principles and purpose of first aid is often given in the mnemonic“3 Ps”.Each“P”stand for:

• Prevent further injury
• Preserve life
• Promote recovery

First Aid Kits

First aid kits must be available in the laboratory and must, be kept in sanitary condition; be limited to simple household-supplies such as in band aids and sterile gauze pads; and include the such personal protective equipment like a pair of laboratory gloves.

There are two main classes of first aid kits according to the International Safety Equipment Association (ISEA) classification: Class A kits are for small offices with few employees. Class B kits are for more complex or higher-risk environments which could be applied to the tasks being performed or that has to service more people like in industrial facilities or warehouses.

Simple first aid kit components

The following can make up a simple first aid kit:

• A leaflet giving general advice on first aid;
• 20 individually wrapped sterile adhesive dressings (assorted sizes);
• Two sterile eye pads;
• Four individually wrapped triangular bandages (preferably sterile);
• Six safety pins;
• Six medium sized (approximately 12cm x 12cm) individually wrapped sterile undedicated wound dressings;
• Two large (approximately 18cm x 18cm) sterile individually wrapped undedicated wound dressings;
• One pair of disposable gloves.
• Equivalent or additional items are acceptable.

Learners have different personalities as such they react differently to different types of motivation. Therefore, teachers should bear in mind that no rigid motivational procedures suit all situations or problems. The following are some of the applications of motivation to classroom situations.

Active participation of learners

Learners are highly motivated when they are actively involved in the learning process. This can be achieved when age and level of mental development are taken into consideration. For instance, a teacher teaching (3-2) to grade ones will require concrete objects to help them understand what three minus two is in order to arrive at the answer. This will stimulate the learners’ interest and help them see the purpose and the goal which they will strive to achieve.

Knowledge of goals

Knowledge of objectives in a learning process enhances motivation. It is therefore imperative that teachers make known to the learners the objectives of the lesson as this will make the learners aware of what is expected of them

3.Relationship with life

Learners should always relate to real-life situations whenever they are learning. For instance, when as a teacher you are teaching about vegetables, you need to use local vegetables that the learners can relate with such as chibwabwa even when you are using western-oriented sources (books). Learners need to know what is local first before you introduce them to what is foreign.

Teacher-pupil relationship

A good teacher-pupil relationship enhances motivation in the learners. Learning is likely to take place when the learner feels comfortable with the teacher as they will be free to ask questions where they do not understand even outside the classroom. However, this relationship has to be strictly academic especially when opposite sexes are involved.

Applications of Motivation in Incentives

Incentives are a great aspect of motivation in the learning process. Learners will work extra hard in order to obtain some incentives. Teachers should use incentives such as high grades, praise, and recognition and in early grades use things like stars, stickers with characters that are valued by learners.

In some cases, a teacher can publish results for any given work so as to motivate those who do not perform well.

Knowledge of progress

Prompt knowledge of results after an assessment has a powerful effect on motivation in learning. In any given training situation, the learner needs to know how they are progressing. This can be done by providing the learner with the results of whatever work is given. A teacher should therefore give feedback to learners whenever work is given this will enable the learner to concentrate on what they are not performing well. This type of motivation is effective if the teacher is in the habit of giving internal assessments to learners at regular intervals.

Use of learning styles

People use different learning styles in order for learning to take place. Some learners learn faster when reading most of the materials on their while on the other hand others may learn faster by listening to the teacher. It would therefore be unrealistic for a teacher to employ only one type of learning method in a classroom of many learners. For instance, an auditory learner will be less successful and motivated if the learner if the teacher always uses reading a textbook as a means of instruction. Likewise, a kinaesthetic will be less motivated listening to the teacher all the time.

Teachers can also use various presentation modes such as ICT to present a lesson, however, care must be taken during planning so that the material focuses on the objective of the lesson.

Co-curricular activities such as subject clubs and field trips can also be used to motivate learners. This is so because such activities will enable learners to study the materials on the spot thereby developing interest which leads to better and lasting learning. Some researchers have provided that instruction in classrooms is increasingly routine and repetitive in nature and that if learning tasks were more like play or recreational activities, motivation in academic activities would increase.

There are four major approaches of motivation that are used in the learning and teaching environment.

These are:

1.The Behavioural Approach (Incentive Approach).

This approach requires one to use external rewards and punishment in order to shape and control behaviour of learners. Teachers are encouraged to use incentives such as praise, addressing learners even by name, giving them feedback after assessments. The incentives will create positive results as the learners will be compelled to work extra hard in order to maintain the flow of incentives or even get more.

However, this approach has some weaknesses which other scholars noted and worked on to develop counters which gave birth to other approaches. For instance, when you apply behaviouristic approach to learners, they do not master what they are being taught because their focus is on getting a reward and this limits their ability to be creative hence the need for a cognitive approach.

The Cognitive Approach.

This approach emphasises the fact that learners are not empty vessels and therefore they should be actively involved in the learning process. Under this approach, it is believed that learners instigate and sustain goal directed behaviour. This is so because learners set goals and employ cognitive processes such planning and monitoring. Teachers should therefore create a conducive environment for learners to understand the need and the importance of engaging themselves in the learning process.

3.The Social Cognitive Approach.

This approach takes into consideration both intrinsic motivational techniques and extrinsic motivational techniques. Under this process, the inner/internal desire must be complemented by what is realised after achieving the desired goal. For instance, a learner who likes mathematics may enjoy working with numbers because of the love that one has for the numbers but then praise, feedback and better grades might make such a learner even more interested to work with numbers.

The approach also emphasises the need that humans have to belong. All human beings have a deep-seated need for love and belongingness (Maslow, 1970). Teachers should therefore work hard to ensure that the learners need for love and belongingness is addressed. This can be achieved if teachers ensure that all the learners are treated equally and create an environment conducive enough for learning to take place.

4.The Humanistic Approach.

The Humanistic Approach emphasises that all humans have a deep-seated need for self-actualisation. Self-actualisation is a process of growth of becoming evident in the unfolding and fulfilment of self, i.e. trying to become the best we can be as individuals.

The approach recognises the power that lies in the learners to enable them to drive their own learning. This is why Humanistic psychologists believe that learning takes place from the standpoint of the believer rather than that of the observer. Therefore, a teacher using this approach endeavours to create an educational environment that fosters self-development, cooperation and positive communication.

Cognitive Field or Gestalt theory was formulated by a group of German Psychologists. The theory emphasizes insightful learning rather than mechanical conditioning. It is believed that meaningful learning can only take place through a sequence of problem-solving approach. In this article, you will learn how learning takes place through the application of logical principles and previous experience.

COGNITIVE FIELD THEORY OF LEARNING

The views of many theorists were collected by Gestalt to formulate a cognitive field theory. Notable among them were Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Kohler. Gestalt in German language means “organization or fusion”. This theory rejected the views that consider the learning process in an isolated form rather than in a total or holistic form. The theory does not support associating bits of experiences as postulated in the stimulus-response theories.

This theory is of the opinion that parts are configured or organized to make complete or meaningful experiences or impressions. The emphasis here is on the importance of experience, meaning, problem solving and the development of insights. The Gestalt therefore placed more credence on insightful learning rather than trial and error like that of Thorndike or mechanical conditioning as performed by Ivan Pavlov in hisclassical conditioning theory.

Insightful learning is hinged on the fact that animals undergo a series of problem-solving approach following a sequence of principles or logic and previous experience before arriving at a solution. In this theory, the cognitive ormental processesof the animals are regarded as the yardstick in the development of insightful learning.

To establish this fact, Gestalt Psychologists performed several experiments using apes as subjects. In one of the experiments, an ape(Sultan)was put in a cage. This sultan was very intelligent. In the cage was a stool and banana, hung on the top of the box. Initially, several unsuccessful attempts were made by the apes to get the banana. Suddenly, sultan decided to pull out the stool and climbed it to pluck the banana from where it was hung. This type of learning is called insightful, because it involves problem-solving approach.

Another experiment was performed with several apes including sultan, put in the box with a banana and a stick lying outside the cage. Several experimental apes stretched their hands to pick the banana from outside but were unsuccessful. The brilliant one among them (sultan) devised a solution by picking the stick outside first and using it to draw the banana closer until its hand touched the banana.

The last experiment performed by Kohler on this insightful learning, was an extension of the second experiment. In this case, the apes were put in the cage; banana and two sticks (long and short) were lying outside. None of these two sticks could get to the banana unless by joining them together.

The apes in the box made series of attempts to rake in the banana with the two sticks separately without succeeding. It was sultan who later manipulated and fixed the two sticks together before it could finally collect the banana. All these experiments indicated that learning cannot take place in a segregated way but in a complete form.

Insightful learning therefore adopts the following strategies in learning:

(a) identify and define the problem or task;

(b) formulate the hypotheses;

(c) come out with different solutions;

(d) select /implement the viable solution; and

(e) evaluate / appraise the selected solution or revisit the problem.

Differences between Behaviourists and Gestalt Theories of Learning



CLASSROOM IMPLICATIONS OF GESTALT THEORY

1. This theory has developed the concept that learners have different needs and concerns at different times, and that they have subjective interpretations in different contexts.
2. The teacher should realize the importance of instructional aids during teaching-learning activities, hence he/she should make use of teaching aids for a meaningful learning in the classroom.
3. The teacher should make his/her teaching more participatory to the students. It is on this basis that the teacher will be able to discover the hidden talents in his/her students.
4. If the classroom experiences of the students are related, students will be able to transfer the gained experience into future learning. This will then promote interrelatedness.
5. The teacher should not neglect the use of motivational strategies in teaching -learning activities. This reinforcement will stimulate the efforts of the students in the classroom.

Introduction

In the last article poverty was defined and its relation to food security explained. This article explains the relationship between economic growth and food security as a pre-requisite to enhancing food security. Interventions that promote food security at different levels require financial.

Human and material resources for implementation and these resources can only be generated through increased economic growth. The article recognises the fact that economic increase alone would not automatically ensure food security for all people but that other mechanisms have to be put in place to ensure redistribution of resources arising from economic growth.

Definition of Economic Growth

Economic growth is the incremental value in monetary berms of the wealth of a nation. The total value of goods and services produced by a nation are measured using a compound index called Gross Domestic Product or GDP.

The growth of GDP from one year to the other is measured in percentage terms which may be positive, static or negative depending on the performance of the economy. The higher the economic development rate the higher the amount of financial resources that a country can have available for further investment in various sectors of the economy.

Economic Growth and Food Security

When a country achieves higher levels of economy relative to the size of the economy and population size, potential is created for increased resources to flow towards interventions that address food insecurity both in the short term and long term.

However, it is also possible for the wealth from accelerated economy to be concentrated in a small section of society such that deliberate strategies and incentive mechanisms have to be put in place in order to facilitate the flow of resources from economic increase towards attainment of food security.

Ikaze ku rubuga Centre for Elites,

Aho dusangira ubumenyi ku ngingo zinyuranye, ziganjemo ibijyanye n’ubuzima bw’umubiri n’ubwo mu mutwe, Iyigamyifatire, ubuzima busanzwe, ubumenyi ndetse n’ikoranabuhanga.

Turi mu rukurikirane rw’ibiganiro rwiswe_ Turusheho gusobanukirwa n’imyifatire yacu ndetse n’iy’abo tubana.

Mukiganiro cy’ubushizetwaganiriye ku bushakashatsi bwa mbere, bufitanye isano na psychologiya,bwabaye mugihe cya kera, ubwo abantu bari batangiye kwibaza inkomoko yibitekerezo byabo, tunavuga ku buryo umuhanga Itard yagerageje guhindura imyitwarire yumuhungu wishyamba w’i Aveyron mu Bufaransa. Ibi byombi bikaba byaraduharuriraga inzira ndetse binadukomoreza ku isura y’iyigamyifatire cyangwa PSYCHOLOGIYA

Ni muri urwo rwego rero, uyu munsi, turi buganire ku Iyigamyifatire nyirizina; icyo ari cyo, ndetse n’uburyo yatangiye kwigwa nk’ubuhanga nyabwo bwo kwiga no guhindura imyifatire y’abantu n’inyamaswa.

Psychologiya cyangwa iyigamyifatire ni iki?

Psychologiya, muri rusange isobanurwa nk’uburyo bwa gihanga bwo kwiga imyifatire n’ibibera mu mutwe. Ubu bumenyi bukaba bukubiyemo ubw’imyifatire yose, yaba iy’abantu cyangwa se iy’inyamaswa. Iyo yiga kubantu, psychologiya yibanda ku bintu byose batekereza, uburyo biyumva, cyangwa ibyo bakora. Akenshi usanga abashinzwe imyifatire ya muntu, bita aba busikologue, batandukanira ku buryo baha agaciro ubwoko runaka bw’imyifatire mu bushakashatsi bwabo.

Nk’urugero, hari abahanga mubya psychologiya bemeza ko ushobora gusa kwiga imyifatire iboneshwa amaso, cyangwa iyo ushobora kwitegereza no gupima muburyo butaziguye. Hari n’abandi bemeza ko ibitekerezo byacu, ibyiyumvo, ndetse n’ibyo twibwira ari ngombwa, n’ubwo bwose bitagaragarira amaso mu buryo butaziguye. Gusa bose ikintu bahurizaho ni uko hagomba kwifashishwa ubushakashatsi bwa gihanga cyangwa bwa siyansi kandi bunyuze munzira nyazo kugirango habashwe kwigwa imyifatire iyo ari yo yose.

Mwumvise neza, ko busikologiya yaje nk’uburyo bwa gihanga bwo kwiga imyifatire ndetse n’ibibera mu mutwe, kandi ko hagomba kwitabazwa uburyo bwa gihanga mu kwiga iyo myifatire. Gusa aha hari ikindi kibazo bituzanira: Ni iki gituma psychologiya bayita ubuhanga cyangwa Siyansi yokwiga imyifatire? (ibi bijyana n’ishingiro rya siyansi ry‘ Iyigamyifatire)

Igisubizo twagishakira mu ko, Kugirango umenye neza ko amakuru yakusanyijwe arasa ku ntego koko, abahanga mu by’imyifatire ya muntu bashingira ku bushakashatsi bwa gihanga. Ni muri urwo rwego rero Mu iyigamyifatire, imyanzuro yose iba ishingiye ku makuru aboneka muburyo bwo kwitegereza no gusesengura amakuru ava mu maperereza ndetse n’amagerageza ya gihanga (experimentations).

Urugero twarufatira ku buryo muganga Wilhelm Wundt, yakoresheje, akaba kugeza na n’ubu ari we ufatwa nk’umubyeyi w’ iyigamyifatire nka siyansi kubera ko ari we waba yarashinze laboratoire ya mbere y’ iyigamyifatire, ubwo hari i Leipzig, mu Budage, mu 1879. Uyu ubundi abazi gushyenga bavuga ko yabashije gushyingira Physiologiya (ink’yiganzungano-mikorere y’umubiri) na filosofiya (nk’isesengurabitekerezo), maze bikabyara busikologiya (nk’iyigamyifatire).

Uburyo iki gitekerezo cyamujemo, yabanje kugereranya ibibera mu mutwe w’umuntu n’utubumbe duto cyane, nka tumwe tugize ibinyabutabire byose (bita composés chimiques cg Chemical compounds) . Ubwo yiyemeza ko imitekerereze ya muntu igizwe na bene utwo tubumbe two mu bwoko bubiri, ndetse akaba ari na two inagenderaho. Utwo tubumbe tukaba turimo ibyiyumvo ndetse n’amarangamutima. Muri laboratoire ye rero, Wundt yagerageje kwirekana ukuri kw’ibyo yavugaga yifashishije ikusanya makuru rikozwe muburyo bwa gihanga(scientific observation).

Gusa n’ubwo uburyo yakoresheje icyo gihe butari mu murongo nyawo kandi butajyaga gutanga umusaruro wizewe 100%, inyungu z’akazi yakoze abahanga bazirebeye mu ndorewamo y’umusaruro byatanze, aho kuba inzira yakoresheje ngo abigereho. Ubwo uburyo bwe yabwise “introspection”cyangwa‘kwigenzura’, akaba ari nabwo bwabimburiye ubundi bwose tuzi mu iyigamyifatire hakoreshejwe inzira z’ubushakashatsi bwa gihanga (cg. Scientific method).

Muri ubu buryo bwo kwigenzura bwahimbwe na Wundt, umuntu afata igihe cyo kwitekerezaho, maze agasesengura ibyo yanyuzemo mu buzima bwe, hanyuma agatanga raporo y’ibyamubayeho, noneho umujyanama we akaba aribyo aheraho amenya ikibazo afite cyo mu mutwe cyangwa ibimutera imyifatire idasanzwe.

Gusa aha twakwibukiranya ko N’ubwo abahanga mu by’imyifatire ya muntu bakoresha uburyo bwa siyansi kugirango berekane kandi bashyigikire ibitekerezo binyuranye, ibibazo byinshi bijyanye n’imyifatire na n’ubu ntibirabonerwa ibisubizo. Niyo mpamvu Imitekerereze ya psychologiya ikomeza guhindurwa ndetse no kuvugururwa kugeaza na n’ubu.

Twabonye busikologiya mu buryo butandukanye, harimo uburyo yifashishijwe n’abakurambere mu gushaka ibisubizo ku nkomoko y’imyifatire yabo, ndetse n’uko yagendeweho mukugerageza guhindura imyifatire y’umwana w’ishyamba. Gusa haracyari ikibazo kitarasubizwa: busikologiya nyirizina yaba yarakomotse hehe?

Mugugisubiza iki kibazo, bitujyana inyuma, mu bihe byo hambere cyera, mu kinyejana cya gatandatu n’icya gatanu mbere yivuka rya Yezu, ubwo Abagereki batangiraga kwiga imyifatire y’abantu, ari nabwo bari bamaze gusobanukirwa ko burya ahanini, ubuzima bw’abantu bugengwa n’ubwenge bwabo aho kuba imana zabo. Ibi byakurikiwe no gusobanukirwa kandi ko burya abantu ari n’ibiremwa byitekerereza kandi bizi gushyira mu gaciro.

Ni muri urwo rwego rero, abafilozofe (ba mukundabitekerezo) bo muri icyo gihe batangiye kugerageza gusobanura isi ibakikije bakurikije uburyo abantu bayibona. Ni nabwo haje igitekerezo cy’uko, ‘uburyo ibintu bishyushye cyangwa bikonje, bitose cyangwa byumye, bikomeye cyangwa byoroshye’ ari byo bigena uko abantu babana na byo cyangwa babibamo, ndetse n’ingaruka bibagiraho.

N’ubwo abahanga mu bya filozofiya b’Abagereki b’icyo gihe batashingiraga ku bushakashatsi bwimbitse, babashije gushyiraho urwego rwo guteza imbere siyanse, harimo na psychologiya, binyuze mu kwitegereza nk’uburyo bushya bwo kwifashisha mu gusobanukirwa n’ isi batuyemo. Ni ukuvuga muri iki gihe bibandaga cyane kuri filosofiya mu gusobanura no kwiga imyifatire ya muntu.

Byaratinze, Bigeze Rwagati muri za 1500s, Nicola Copernique (1473-1543) yaje gutangaza ko isi yaba atari yo zingiro ry’isanzure, nk’uko byakekwaga mbere, kandi ko ahubwo ari yo izenguruka izuba, bitandukanye n’imyumvire yo muri icyo gihe. Nyuma yaho,Galileo Galilei(1564-1642) yaje kwifashisha ibyatangajwe na kopernike, maze akoresheje indebakure yo mu bwoko bwa telescope abasha kwemeza neza aho inyenyeri ziherereye n’uburyo zigenda mu isanzure. Ibi rero bikaba ari byo byarashyize ibuye ry’ifatizo ku igerageza rya gihanga rigezweho ryifashisha ukwitegereza.

Naho mu kinyejana cya cumi na karindwi, Abafilozofe batangiye gukwirakwiza igitekerezo cya dualisme, ari cyo gitekerezo cy’uko ubwenge n’umubiri bitandukanye kandi binanyuranye. Gusa hanyuma umufilozofe w’umufaransaRené Descartes(1596-1650) we ntiyabyumvise kimwe nabo ndetse aranabavuguruza cyane, ahubwo azana icye igitekerezo cy’ uko hari isano nini hagati ya roho n’umubiri. Yagerageje kumvikanisha ko roho ari yo igenzura imikorere yumubiri, ibyiyumvo, ndetse n imyumvire. Uburyo bwe bwo gusobanura imyifatire yumuntu bwari bushingiye kugitekerezo cy’uko roho n’umubiri kimwe gifasha ikindi, maze byombi bikagira uruhare mu kugena uburyo umuntu abaho mu buzima. Gusa, Isano nyayo iri hagati y’imikorere y’umubiri na roho nti yigeze isobanurwa neza kugeza na n’ubu.

Isoko nyayo y’iyigamyifatire

Tugana rero ku isooko nyayo y’iyigamyifatire mu buryo bwa gihanga, Umuhanga mu by’imyifatire ya muntu, Hilgard adusobanurira neza ko burya, “Siyanse ya none yaba yaratangiye kwigaragaza neza ubwo yahuzaga ibitekerezo bya filozofiya, inyurabwenge (Logique), n’imibare hamwe nibyiyumviro ndetse n’ubuhangabintu by’abantu b’abanyabikorwa (practical people)” (Hilgard, 1987).Iyigamyifatire

Ni muri urwo rwego, mbere yo kwinjira mu kinyejana cya cumi n’icyenda, abahanga mu binyabuzima bari bararangije gutangaza ubuvumbuzi ku ingirabuzimafatizo (cellure) nk’inyubako z’ubuzima. Nyuma ho gato, abahanga mu by’ubutabire (ari byo shimi) bakoze imbonerahamwe y’urukurikirane rw’ibintushingiro (Tableau Périodique des éléments), ndetse abahanga mu ubugenge (cg fiziki) nabo hagati aho nti bari basinziriya, ahubwo bari barakataje mu gusobanura imbaraga z’ibibera muri atome(atomic forces) (aha atome ni ingirakintu fatizo).

Mbese muri make abahanga mu by’ubumenyi kamere, bari baravumbuye uburyo bwo kwiga no gusobanukirwa n’ibibera ku isi byo ku rwego ruhambaye bifashishije uburyo bwo kubigabanyamo uduce dutoduto tworoshye kwiga. Akaba ari no muri urwo rwego rero na psychologiya cyangwa iyigamyifatire yaje kuvukamo no gufata isura ya siyanse bwa mbere.

Gusa burya rero ngo bene samusure bavukana isunzu. Nka siyanse yavutse ku ruhurirane rw’ikundabitekerezo, ndetse n’iyigamiterere y’umubiri, ak’inkundabitekerezo nti kabuze kuyikurikirana. Mu munsi yayo ya mbere, nyuma y’uko ibona izuba, imihango yo kuyirira ubunnyano yaretse kuba ibirori ahubwo irangwa n’intambara idasanzwe y’ibitekerezo, ari nayo tuzarebera hamwe mu kiganiro cyacu gikurikira. Nti muzacikwe rero turabararitse, kandi tunabashishikariza gukora subscribe no gukanda ku nzogera, kugirango ntihazagire ikiganiro cyacu na kimwe kigucika.

Murakoze, tubaye tubasezeye tunabararikira kuduha ibitekerezo muri comment, bizanadufasha gutegura ikiganiro gitaha ku buryo buzabanyura kurenza. Tubifuriza gukomeza kugira ibihe byiza.

YOITANNES AMOS COMENIUS (1592-1670) IN MORAVIA (CZECHOSLOVAKIA)

Comenius’s Education Ideas

Comenius suggested gilding in the classroom.

Maria Montessori (1870-1952) and Western Education

Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

Fredrick Froebel (1782-1852)German

Johannes Herbart (1776-1841)

Educational Ideas

John Dewey (1859-1952)Role on Modern Western Education

Education Ideas

John Locke (1532-1704)

EDUCATION IDEAS

Introduction

Andrea Gunder Frank, like Baran, was interested in identifying the causes of underdevelopment, but unlike his predecessor he did not lay great emphasis on the social classes and their control over the economic surplus. Rather, Frank argued that the crucial mechanism for extraction of the surplus was trade and other kinds of exchange of goods and services, not only international trade, but also exchange internally in the peripheral societies.

Frank rejected the dualist conception according to which the underdeveloped countries comprised two separate economies, one modern and capitalist and another traditional and non-capitalist. On the contrary, he claimed that capitalism permeated the whole of the periphery to such an extent that the Latin American and other peripheral societies had become integrated parts of a one-world capitalist system after the first penetration by metropolitan merchant capital. This had established capitalist exchange relations and networks that linked the poorest agricultural labourers in the periphery with the executive directors of the large corporations in the USA.

The exchange relations and the network were described by Frank as a pyramidal structure with metropoles and satellites. The agriculture,’ labourers and the small farmers in the rural regions of the periphery were satellites at the bottom. They were kinked, mainly through trade, to the landowners and local centres of capital accumulation that is local metropoles.

There is turn, were satellites in terms of regional economic elites and centres of surplus extraction. in this way the structure grew, through several links, until it reached the ruling classes and world centres of capitalism in the USA. Throughout this pyramidal structure surplus was appropriated by the centres which, in turn, were subject to the surplus extraction activities of higher level centres.

According to Frank, empirical evidence showed that the economic surplus generated in Latin America was drained away. Instead of being used for investment in the countries of origin, most of the surplus was transferred to the affluent capitalist countries, especially the USA. Frank’s basic point was that the satellites would be developed only to the extent and in the respects which were compatible with the interests of their metropoles.

And here experience showed, according to him, that neither the USA nor the other industrialized countries had any interest in genuine development of the Latin American countries. Much indicated in fact that precisely those countries and regions which had the closest links to the industrialized countries were the proportionally least developed. Therefore, the explanation of under development lay primarily in the metropole, satellite relations, which not only blocked economic progress, but also often actively underdeveloped the backward areas further (this being a process and not a state).

Frank derived from this the much debated conclusion that all countries in Latin America as well as other Third World countries, would be better off if they disassociated themselves from, or totally broke the links to, the USA and the thee industrialised countries. De-linking from the world market was the best development strategy. This presupposed the introduction of some form of socialism in the peripheral countries, because the ruling classes, the landowners and the comprador capitalists could not be expected to bring about such a de-linking and thus remove the foundation for their own surplus generation.

Frank’s conclusions, according to both contemporary and later critics, were often drawn further than the analyses warranted. However, this did not prevent his fundamental views and conceptions from winning wide dissemination and achieving considerable impact upon the development debate throughout most of the 1970s.

Frank’s position in this regard came to resemble that of Rostov in the sense that they both, for more than a decade, functioned as major reference points in the debates on dependency and economic grow respectively. Like Rostov, whose position was gradually superseded by more nuanced and empirically better substantiated theories within his research tradition, Frank eventually was replaced by more complex and differentia” attempts at explaining the reasons for underdevelopment and its dynamics. One of the earliest attempts in this direction came from Sarnir Amin.

Amin was one of the first economists from the Third World who acquired a prominent international position in the development debates, including the debates in Western Europe and North America. Two of this academic works, in particular, contributed to this prominence: Accumulation on a World Scale, and unequal development.

While Frank chiefly concerned with the conditions and relations of production. Based on thorough historical analysis of how Europe had under developed large parts of Africa in the colonial era, Amin worked out two idea-type societal models with the main emphasis on the structuring of production processes. One model described as auto-centric centre economy; the other a dependent peripheral economy.

The model of auto centric economy has features similar to those included in Rostow’s description of the industrialised countries in the epoch of high mass consumption. The auto centric reproduction structure is characterized by the manufacturing of both means of production and goods for mass consumption, Furthermore, the two sectors are interlinked so that they mutually support each other’s growth. Similarly, there is a close link between industry and agriculture. The auto centric economy is general characterised by being self-reliant.

This does not imply self-sufficiency. On the contrary, a highly developed capitalist economy typically engages in extensive foreign trade and other international exchange relations. Bur the economy is auto centric in the sense that the intra-societal linkages between the main sectors predominate and shape the basic reproduction processes. It is the internal production relations hat primarily determine the society’s development possibilities arid dynamics.

It is quite a different matter with the peripheral economy. According to Amin, this type of economy is dominated by an ‘over-developed’ export sector and a sector that produces goods for luxury consumption. There is no capital goods industry, and only a small sector manufacturing goods for mass consumption. There are no development-promoting links between agriculture and industry. The peripheral economy is not self-reliant, but heavily dependent on the world market and the links to production and centres of capital accumulation in the centre countries.

It is further part of the picture of the peripheral economy that it is composed of various modes of production. Capitalism has only penetrated limited parts of the production processes while other parts, and quantitatively greater ones, are structured by non-capitalist modes of production.

On this point, Amen’s conception is more in line with Baran’s mode of reasoning and hence, in opposition to Frank’s definition of capitalism, in terms of exchange relations. Amin endorsed the thesis that capitalist dominates the periphery within the sphere of circulation, but he asserted at the same time that pre-capitalist modes of production continue to exist and that they exert considerable influence on the total structure of reproduction.

The distorted production structure in the peripheral countries and their dependence is a result of the dominance of the centre countries. It is the centre countries who, by extracting resources and exploiting cheap labour, have inflicted on the peripheral economies the ‘over-developed’ export sector. At the same time, the centre countries have prevented the establishment of national capital goods industries and the manufacturing of goods for mass consumption. in these areas the rich countries continue to have a vital interest in selling their goods in the peripheral markets.

If the less developed countries operating under the circumstances are to initiate a development process than can lead them in the direction of an auto centric economy – if they are to achieve growth with at least a minimum of equity in social and spatial terms – then they must break their asymmetrical relationship with the centre countries. In its place they must expand regional cooperation and internally pursue a socialist development strategy.

Social competence

Components of social competence

Why is social competence important?

Dimensions of Child’s Social development

• · Show interest in others
• · Learn right from wrong
• · Learn to get along with others
• · Learn a role for themselves that takes into consideration their own unique self, gender, race, ethnicity and abilities.

Social skills in early childhood

Social cognition

The role of the teacher

Conclusion

There are a couple of principles of good industrial relations, but all depend on the efficiency of the players in the system.

Here are the major principles:

• The willingness and ability of management and trade unions to deal with the problems freely, independently and with responsibility
• Recognition of collective bargaining.
• Desirability of associations of workers and management with theGovernmentwhile formulating and implementing policies relating to general economic and social measures affecting industrial relations.
• Fair redressal of employee grievances by the management
• Providing satisfactory working conditions and payment of fair wage.
• Introducing a suitable system of employees’ education and training.
• Developing a proper communication system between management and employees.
• To ensure better working conditions, living conditions and reasonable wages.
• To develop employees to adapt themselves for technological, social and economic changes.
• To make positive contributions to the economic development of the country.

Role of State in Good Industrial Relations

In recent years the State has played an important role in regulating industrial relations but the extent of its involvement in the process is determined by the level of social and economic development while the mode of intervention gets patterned in conformity with the political system obtaining in the country and the social and cultural traditions of its people.

The degree of State intervention is also determined by the stage of economic development. For example, in a developing economy like Zambia, work-stoppages to settle claims have more serious consequences than in a developed economy and similarly, afree market economymay leave the parties free to settle their relations through strikes and lockouts but in other systems varying degrees of State participation is required for building up sound industrial relations.

In Zambia, the role played by the State is an important feature in the field of industrial relations and State intervention in this area has assumed a more direct form. The State has enacted procedural as well as substantive laws to regulate industrial relations in the country.

Role of Management in Industrial Relations

•  Managements must delegate authority to their employees commensurate with responsibility.

• They must evolve well-conceived and scientific wage and salary plans so that the employees may receive just compensation for their efforts. They must devise, develop and implement a proper incentive plan for personnel at all levels in the organization.
• There must be a well-planned communication system in the organization to pass on the information and to get feedback from the employees.
• Managements must pay personal attention to the problems of their employees irrespective of the fact whether they arise out of job environment or they are of personal nature.
• They must evolve, establish and utilize appropriate types of machinery for the speedy redressal of employees’ grievances.
• Managements must provide enlightened leadership to the people in the organization.
• An environment of mutual respect, confidence, goodwill and understanding on the part of both management and employees in the exercise of their rights and performance of their duties should prevail for maintaining good industrial relations.

The management has a significant role to play in maintaining smooth industrial relations. For a positive improvement in their relations with employees and maintain sound human relations in the organization, the management must treat employees with dignity and respect.

Employees should be given ‘say’ in the affairs of the organization generally and wherever possible, in the decision-making process as well. A participative and permissive attitude on the part of management tends to give an employee a feeling that he is an important member of the organization, a feeling that encourages a spirit of cooperativeness and dedication to work.

• Management must make genuine efforts to provide a congenial work environment.
• They must make the employees feel that they are genuinely interested in their personal development.
• To this end, adequate opportunities for appropriate programmes of training and development should he provided.