When they were recalled after awakening the dreams were regarded as either the friendly or hostile manifestation of some higher powers, demoniacal and Divine. With the rise of scientific thought the whole of this expressive mythology was transferred to psychology; to-day there is but a small minority among educated persons who doubt that the dream is the dreamer’s own psychical act.
Meaning of Dreams
There is, firstly, the psychical significance of the dream, its position with regard to the psychical processes, as to a possible biological function; secondly, has the dream a meaning, can sense be made of each single dream as of other mental syntheses? According to some doctors, dreams are provoked and initiated exclusively by stimuli proceeding from the senses or the body, which either reach the sleeper from without or are accidental disturbances of his internal organs.
(1) What is the psychical process which has transformed the latent content of the dream into its manifest content?
(2) What is the motive or the motives which have made such transformation exigent?
The other problems of the dream, the inquiry as to its stimuli, as to the source of its materials, as to its possible purpose, the function of dreaming, the forgetting of dreams. The contrast between manifest and latent dream-content is clearly only of value for the dreams of the second and more especially for those of the third class. Before leaving these infantile dreams, which are obviously unrealized desires, we must not fail to mention another chief characteristic of dreams, one that has been long noticed, and one which stands out most clearly in this class.
I can replace any of these dreams by a phrase expressing a desire. If the sea trip had only lasted longer; if I were only washed and dressed; if I had only been allowed to keep the cherries instead of giving them to my uncle. But the dream gives something more than the choice, for here the desire is already realized; its realization is real and actual. The dreams can be divided into three classes.
Intelligible Dreams
1. Intelligible dreams, which allow us to penetrate into our psychical life without further ado. Such dreams are numerous; they are usually short, and, as a general rule, do not seem very noticeable, because everything remarkable or exciting surprise is absent.
2. A second group is formed by those dreams which are indeed self-coherent and have a distinct meaning, but appear strange because we are unable to reconcile their meaning with our mental life.
3. The third group of dreams belong which are void of both meaning and intelligibility; they are incoherent, complicated, and meaningless.
The dream presentations consist chiefly, if not wholly, of scenes and mainly of visual sense images. Hence a kind of transformation is not entirely absent in this class of dreams, and this may be fairly designated as the dream work. An idea merely existing in the region of possibility is replaced by a vision of its accomplishment
Aho dusangira ubumenyi ku ngingo zinyuranye, ziganjemo ibijyanye n’ubuzima bw’umubiri n’ubwo mu mutwe, Iyigamyifatire, ubuzima busanzwe, ubumenyi ndetse n’ikoranabuhanga.
Turi mu rukurikirane rw’ibiganiro rwiswe_ Turusheho gusobanukirwa n’imyifatire yacu ndetse n’iy’abo tubana.
Mukiganiro cy’ubushizetwaganiriye ku bushakashatsi bwa mbere, bufitanye isano na psychologiya,bwabaye mugihe cya kera, ubwo abantu bari batangiye kwibaza inkomoko yibitekerezo byabo, tunavuga ku buryo umuhanga Itard yagerageje guhindura imyitwarire yumuhungu wishyamba w’i Aveyron mu Bufaransa. Ibi byombi bikaba byaraduharuriraga inzira ndetse binadukomoreza ku isura y’iyigamyifatire cyangwa PSYCHOLOGIYA
Ni muri urwo rwego rero, uyu munsi, turi buganire ku Iyigamyifatire nyirizina; icyo ari cyo, ndetse n’uburyo yatangiye kwigwa nk’ubuhanga nyabwo bwo kwiga no guhindura imyifatire y’abantu n’inyamaswa.
Iyigamyifatire
Psychologiya cyangwa iyigamyifatire ni iki?
Psychologiya, muri rusange isobanurwa nk’uburyo bwa gihanga bwo kwiga imyifatire n’ibibera mu mutwe. Ubu bumenyi bukaba bukubiyemo ubw’imyifatire yose, yaba iy’abantu cyangwa se iy’inyamaswa. Iyo yiga kubantu, psychologiya yibanda ku bintu byose batekereza, uburyo biyumva, cyangwa ibyo bakora. Akenshi usanga abashinzwe imyifatire ya muntu, bita aba busikologue, batandukanira ku buryo baha agaciro ubwoko runaka bw’imyifatire mu bushakashatsi bwabo.
Nk’urugero, hari abahanga mubya psychologiya bemeza ko ushobora gusa kwiga imyifatire iboneshwa amaso, cyangwa iyo ushobora kwitegereza no gupima muburyo butaziguye. Hari n’abandi bemeza ko ibitekerezo byacu, ibyiyumvo, ndetse n’ibyo twibwira ari ngombwa, n’ubwo bwose bitagaragarira amaso mu buryo butaziguye. Gusa bose ikintu bahurizaho ni uko hagomba kwifashishwa ubushakashatsi bwa gihanga cyangwa bwa siyansi kandi bunyuze munzira nyazo kugirango habashwe kwigwa imyifatire iyo ari yo yose.
Mwumvise neza, ko busikologiya yaje nk’uburyo bwa gihanga bwo kwiga imyifatire ndetse n’ibibera mu mutwe, kandi ko hagomba kwitabazwa uburyo bwa gihanga mu kwiga iyo myifatire. Gusa aha hari ikindi kibazo bituzanira: Ni iki gituma psychologiya bayita ubuhanga cyangwa Siyansi yokwiga imyifatire? (ibi bijyana n’ishingiro rya siyansi ry‘ Iyigamyifatire)
Igisubizo twagishakira mu ko, Kugirango umenye neza ko amakuru yakusanyijwe arasa ku ntego koko, abahanga mu by’imyifatire ya muntu bashingira ku bushakashatsi bwa gihanga. Ni muri urwo rwego rero Mu iyigamyifatire, imyanzuro yose iba ishingiye ku makuru aboneka muburyo bwo kwitegereza no gusesengura amakuru ava mu maperereza ndetse n’amagerageza ya gihanga (experimentations).
Urugero twarufatira ku buryo muganga Wilhelm Wundt, yakoresheje, akaba kugeza na n’ubu ari we ufatwa nk’umubyeyi w’ iyigamyifatire nka siyansi kubera ko ari we waba yarashinze laboratoire ya mbere y’ iyigamyifatire, ubwo hari i Leipzig, mu Budage, mu 1879. Uyu ubundi abazi gushyenga bavuga ko yabashije gushyingira Physiologiya (ink’yiganzungano-mikorere y’umubiri) na filosofiya (nk’isesengurabitekerezo), maze bikabyara busikologiya (nk’iyigamyifatire).
Uburyo iki gitekerezo cyamujemo, yabanje kugereranya ibibera mu mutwe w’umuntu n’utubumbe duto cyane, nka tumwe tugize ibinyabutabire byose (bita composés chimiques cg Chemical compounds) . Ubwo yiyemeza ko imitekerereze ya muntu igizwe na bene utwo tubumbe two mu bwoko bubiri, ndetse akaba ari na two inagenderaho. Utwo tubumbe tukaba turimo ibyiyumvo ndetse n’amarangamutima. Muri laboratoire ye rero, Wundt yagerageje kwirekana ukuri kw’ibyo yavugaga yifashishije ikusanya makuru rikozwe muburyo bwa gihanga(scientific observation).
Mugugisubiza iki kibazo, bitujyana inyuma, mu bihe byo hambere cyera, mu kinyejana cya gatandatu n’icya gatanu mbere yivuka rya Yezu, ubwo Abagereki batangiraga kwiga imyifatire y’abantu, ari nabwo bari bamaze gusobanukirwa ko burya ahanini, ubuzima bw’abantu bugengwa n’ubwenge bwabo aho kuba imana zabo. Ibi byakurikiwe no gusobanukirwa kandi ko burya abantu ari n’ibiremwa byitekerereza kandi bizi gushyira mu gaciro.
Ni muri urwo rwego rero, abafilozofe (ba mukundabitekerezo) bo muri icyo gihe batangiye kugerageza gusobanura isi ibakikije bakurikije uburyo abantu bayibona. Ni nabwo haje igitekerezo cy’uko, ‘uburyo ibintu bishyushye cyangwa bikonje, bitose cyangwa byumye, bikomeye cyangwa byoroshye’ ari byo bigena uko abantu babana na byo cyangwa babibamo, ndetse n’ingaruka bibagiraho.
N’ubwo abahanga mu bya filozofiya b’Abagereki b’icyo gihe batashingiraga ku bushakashatsi bwimbitse, babashije gushyiraho urwego rwo guteza imbere siyanse, harimo na psychologiya, binyuze mu kwitegereza nk’uburyo bushya bwo kwifashisha mu gusobanukirwa n’ isi batuyemo. Ni ukuvuga muri iki gihe bibandaga cyane kuri filosofiya mu gusobanura no kwiga imyifatire ya muntu.
Byaratinze, Bigeze Rwagati muri za 1500s, Nicola Copernique (1473-1543) yaje gutangaza ko isi yaba atari yo zingiro ry’isanzure, nk’uko byakekwaga mbere, kandi ko ahubwo ari yo izenguruka izuba, bitandukanye n’imyumvire yo muri icyo gihe. Nyuma yaho,Galileo Galilei(1564-1642) yaje kwifashisha ibyatangajwe na kopernike, maze akoresheje indebakure yo mu bwoko bwa telescope abasha kwemeza neza aho inyenyeri ziherereye n’uburyo zigenda mu isanzure. Ibi rero bikaba ari byo byarashyize ibuye ry’ifatizo ku igerageza rya gihanga rigezweho ryifashisha ukwitegereza.
Naho mu kinyejana cya cumi na karindwi, Abafilozofe batangiye gukwirakwiza igitekerezo cya dualisme, ari cyo gitekerezo cy’uko ubwenge n’umubiri bitandukanye kandi binanyuranye. Gusa hanyuma umufilozofe w’umufaransaRené Descartes(1596-1650) we ntiyabyumvise kimwe nabo ndetse aranabavuguruza cyane, ahubwo azana icye igitekerezo cy’ uko hari isano nini hagati ya roho n’umubiri. Yagerageje kumvikanisha ko roho ari yo igenzura imikorere yumubiri, ibyiyumvo, ndetse n imyumvire. Uburyo bwe bwo gusobanura imyifatire yumuntu bwari bushingiye kugitekerezo cy’uko roho n’umubiri kimwe gifasha ikindi, maze byombi bikagira uruhare mu kugena uburyo umuntu abaho mu buzima. Gusa, Isano nyayo iri hagati y’imikorere y’umubiri na roho nti yigeze isobanurwa neza kugeza na n’ubu.
Isoko nyayo y’iyigamyifatire
Tugana rero ku isooko nyayo y’iyigamyifatire mu buryo bwa gihanga, Umuhanga mu by’imyifatire ya muntu, Hilgard adusobanurira neza ko burya, “Siyanse ya none yaba yaratangiye kwigaragaza neza ubwo yahuzaga ibitekerezo bya filozofiya, inyurabwenge (Logique), n’imibare hamwe nibyiyumviro ndetse n’ubuhangabintu by’abantu b’abanyabikorwa (practical people)” (Hilgard, 1987).Iyigamyifatire
Ni muri urwo rwego, mbere yo kwinjira mu kinyejana cya cumi n’icyenda, abahanga mu binyabuzima bari bararangije gutangaza ubuvumbuzi ku ingirabuzimafatizo (cellure) nk’inyubako z’ubuzima. Nyuma ho gato, abahanga mu by’ubutabire (ari byo shimi) bakoze imbonerahamwe y’urukurikirane rw’ibintushingiro (Tableau Périodique des éléments), ndetse abahanga mu ubugenge (cg fiziki) nabo hagati aho nti bari basinziriya, ahubwo bari barakataje mu gusobanura imbaraga z’ibibera muri atome(atomic forces) (aha atome ni ingirakintu fatizo).
Mbese muri make abahanga mu by’ubumenyi kamere, bari baravumbuye uburyo bwo kwiga no gusobanukirwa n’ibibera ku isi byo ku rwego ruhambaye bifashishije uburyo bwo kubigabanyamo uduce dutoduto tworoshye kwiga. Akaba ari no muri urwo rwego rero na psychologiya cyangwa iyigamyifatire yaje kuvukamo no gufata isura ya siyanse bwa mbere.
Gusa burya rero ngo bene samusure bavukana isunzu. Nka siyanse yavutse ku ruhurirane rw’ikundabitekerezo, ndetse n’iyigamiterere y’umubiri, ak’inkundabitekerezo nti kabuze kuyikurikirana. Mu munsi yayo ya mbere, nyuma y’uko ibona izuba, imihango yo kuyirira ubunnyano yaretse kuba ibirori ahubwo irangwa n’intambara idasanzwe y’ibitekerezo, ari nayo tuzarebera hamwe mu kiganiro cyacu gikurikira. Nti muzacikwe rero turabararitse, kandi tunabashishikariza gukora subscribe no gukanda ku nzogera, kugirango ntihazagire ikiganiro cyacu na kimwe kigucika.
John B. Watsonand Jean-Jacques Rousseau are typically cited as providing the foundations for the modern development of child psychology. In the mid-18th century, Jean Jacques Rousseau described three stages of development:infants(infancy),puer(childhood) andadolescenceinEmile: Or, On Education. Rousseau’s ideas were taken up strongly by educators at the time.
It generally focuses on how and why certain modifications throughout an individual’s life-cycle (cognitive, social, intellectual, personality) and human growth change over time. There are many theorists that have made a profound contribution to this area of psychology. For example,Erik Eriksondeveloped a model of eight stages of psychological development. He believed that humans developed in stages throughout their lifetimes and this would affect their behaviours (Similar ideas toSigmund Freud)
In the late 19th century, psychologists familiar with theevolutionary theoryof Darwin began seeking an evolutionary description of the development of child psychology; prominent here was the pioneering psychologistG. Stanley Hall, who attempted to correlate ages of childhood with previous ages of humanity.
James Mark Baldwin wrote essays on topics that includedImitation: A Chapter in the Natural History of ConsciousnessandMental Development in the Child and the Race: Methods and Processes.James Mark Baldwinwas heavily involved in the theory of developmental psychology.Sigmund Freud, whose concepts were developmental, significantly affected public perceptions.
Child Psychology’s History
5 Steps in Development of child psychology
Child psychology, also calledchild development, is the study of the psychological processes of children and, specifically, how these processes differ from those of adults, how they develop from birth to the end of adolescence, and how and why they differ from one child to the next. The topic is sometimes grouped with infancy, adulthood, and ageing under the category of developmental psychology.
As a scientific discipline with a firm empirical basis, child study is of comparatively recent origin. It was initiated in 1840, when Charles Darwin began a record of the growth and development of one of his own children, collecting the data much as if he had been studying an unknown species. A similar, more elaborate study published by German psychophysiologist William Preyer put forth the methods for a series of others. In 1891 American educational psychologist G. Stanley Hall established thePedagogical Seminary, a periodical devoted to child psychology and pedagogy. During the early 20th century, the development of intelligence tests and the establishment of child guidance clinics further defined the field of child psychology.
A number of notable 20th-century psychologists, among them Sigmund Freud, Melanie Klein, and Freud’s daughter, Anna Freud dealt with child development chiefly from the psychoanalytic point of view. Perhaps the greatest direct influence on the modern development of child psychology was Jean Piaget of Switzerland. By means of direct observation and interaction, Piaget developed a theory of the acquisition of understanding in children. He described the various stages of learning in childhood and characterized children’s perceptions of themselves and of the world at each stage of learning.
The data of child psychology are gathered from a variety of sources. Observations by relatives, teachers, and other adults, as well as the psychologist’s direct observation of and interviews with a child (or children), provide much material. In some cases, a one-way window or mirror is used so that children are free to interact with their environment or others without knowing that they are being watched. Personality tests, intelligence tests, and experimental methods have also proved useful in understanding child development.
Despite attempts to unify various theories of child development, the field remains dynamic, changing as the fields of physiology andpsychologydevelop.
Stages of Development Hierarchy
Michael Commons enhanced and simplifiedBärbel Inhelderand Piaget’s developmental theory and offers a standard method of examining the universal pattern of development. The Model of Hierarchical Complexity (MHC) is not based on the assessment of domain-specific information, it divides the Order of Hierarchical Complexity of tasks to be addressed from the Stage performance on those tasks. A stage is the order hierarchical complexity of the tasks the participant’s successfully addresses. He expanded Piaget’s original eight-stage (counting the half stages) to fifteen stages.
The stages are: 0 Calculatory; 1 Sensory & Motor; 2 Circular sensory-motor; 3 Sensory-motor; 4 Nominal; 5 Sentential; 6 Preoperational; 7 Primary; 8 Concrete; 9 Abstract; 10 Formal; 11 Systematic; 12 Metasystematic; 13 Paradigmatic; 14 Cross-paradigmatic; 15 Meta-Cross-paradigmatic. The order of hierarchical complexity of tasks predicts how difficult the performance is with an R ranging from 0.9 to 0.98.
In the MHC, there are three main axioms for an order to meet in order for the higher-order task to coordinate the next lower order task. Axioms are rules that are followed to determine how the MHC orders actions to form a hierarchy. These axioms are:
a) defined in terms of tasks at the next lower order of hierarchical complexity task action;
b) defined as the higher-order task action that organizes two or more or less complex actions; that is, the more complex action specifies the way in which the less complex actions combine;
c) defined as the lower order task actions have to be carried out non-arbitrarily.
Constructionism
Constructivism is a paradigm in child psychology that characterizes learning as a process of actively constructing knowledge. Individuals create meaning for themselves or make sense of new information by selecting, organizing, and integrating the information with other knowledge, often in the context of social interactions. Constructivismcan occur in two ways: individual and social.Individual constructivismis when a person constructs knowledge through cognitive processes of their own experiences rather than by memorizing facts provided by others.Social constructivismis when individuals construct knowledge through an interaction between the knowledge they bring to a situation and social or cultural exchanges within that content.
Jean Piaget, a Swiss developmental psychologist, proposed that learning is an active process because children learn through experience and make mistakes and solve problems. Piaget proposed that learning should be whole by helping students understand that meaning is constructed.
Evolutionary Theory
Evolutionary developmental psychology is a research paradigm that applies the basic principles of Darwinian evolution, particularly natural selection, to understand the development of human behaviour and cognition. It is an integral part of the development of child psychology which involves the study of both the genetic and environmental mechanisms that underlie the development of social and cognitive competencies, as well as the epigenetic (gene-environment interactions) processes that adapt these competencies to local conditions.
EDP considers both the reliably developing, species-typical features of ontogeny (developmental adaptations), as well as individual differences in behaviour, from an evolutionary perspective.
While evolutionary views tend to regard most individual differences as the result of either random genetic noise (evolutionary by-products) and/or idiosyncrasies (for example, peer groups,education, neighbourhoods, and chance encounters) rather than products of natural selection, EDP asserts that natural selection can favour the emergence of individual differences via “adaptive developmental plasticity.” From this perspective, human development follows alternative life-history strategies in response to environmental variability, rather than following one species-typical pattern of development.
EDP is closely linked to the theoretical framework of evolutionary psychology (EP) but is also distinct from EP in several domains, including research emphasis (EDP focuses on adaptations of ontogeny, as opposed to adaptations of adulthood) and consideration of proximate ontogenetic and environmental factors (i.e., how development happens) in addition to more ultimate factors (i.e., why development happens), which are the focus of mainstream evolutionary psychology.
Attachment Theory
Attachment theory, originally developed byJohn Bowlby, focuses on the importance of open, intimate, emotionally meaningful relationships. Attachment is described as a biological system or powerful survival impulse that evolved to ensure the survival of the infant. A child who is threatened or stressed will move toward caregivers who create a sense of physical, emotional and psychological safety for the individual. Attachment feeds on body contact and familiarity. LaterMary Ainsworthdeveloped the Strange Situation protocol and the concept of the secure base.
Theorists have proposed four types of attachment styles: secure, anxious-avoidant, anxious-resistant, and disorganized.
Secure attachmentis a healthy attachment between the infant and the caregiver. It is characterized by trust.
Anxious-avoidantis an insecure attachment between an infant and a caregiver. This is characterized by the infant’s indifference toward the caregiver.
Anxious-resistantis an insecure attachment between the infant and the caregiver characterized by distress from the infant when separated and anger when reunited.
Disorganizedis an attachment style without a consistent pattern of responses upon the return of the parent.
A child can be hindered in its natural tendency to form attachments. Some babies are raised without the stimulation and attention of a regular caregiver or locked away under conditions of abuse or extreme neglect. The possible short-term effects of this deprivation are anger, despair, detachment, and temporary delay in intellectual development. Long-term effects include increased aggression, clinging behaviour, detachment, psychosomatic disorders, and an increased risk of depression as an adult.
According to the child psychology, Attachment style can affect the relationships between people. Attachment is established in early childhood and attachment continues into adulthood. An example of secure attachment continuing in adulthood would be when the person feels confident and is able to meet their own needs. An example of anxious attachment during adulthood is when the adult chooses a partner with anxious-avoidant attachment.
Nature vs Nature
A significant issue in development of child psychology is the relationship between innateness and environmental influence in regard to any particular aspect of development. This is often referred to as “nature and nurture” or nativism versus empiricism. A nativist account of development would argue that the processes in question are innate, that is, they are specified by the organism’s genes.
An empiricist perspective would argue that those processes are acquired in interaction with the environment. Today developmental psychologists rarely take such polarised positions with regard to most aspects of development; rather they investigate, among many other things, the relationship between innate and environmental influences. One of the ways this relationship has been explored in recent years is through the emerging field of evolutionary developmental psychology.
One area where this innateness debate has been prominently portrayed is in research onlanguage acquisition. A major question in this area is whether or not certain properties of human language are specified genetically or can be acquired throughlearning.
The empiricist position on the issue of language acquisition suggests that the language input provides the necessary information required for learning the structure of language and that infants acquire language through a process ofstatistical learning. From this perspective, language can be acquired via general learning methods that also apply to other aspects of development, such as perceptual learning.
The nativist position argues that the input from language is too impoverished for infants and children to acquire the structure of language. Linguist Noam Chomsky asserts that evidenced by the lack of sufficient information in the language input, there is auniversal grammarthat applies to all human languages and is pre-specified. This has led to the idea that there is a special cognitivemodulesuited for learning language, often called the language acquisition device.
Language Acquisition Device
Chomsky’s critique of the behaviourist model of language acquisition is regarded by many as a key turning point in the decline in the prominence of the theory of behaviourism generally. But Skinner’s conception of “Verbal Behaviour”has not died, perhaps in part because it has generated successful practical applications.
The psychoanalytic theory views career choice in terms of the individual and how he/she operates in isolation in the choice of his career. Basically, the system of psychoanalysis involves the mechanism of sublimation which provides an acceptable way for an individual to release portions of his psychic energies that would be unacceptable to society if expressed directly. Work is ideally suited to provide outlet for sublimated wishes and impulses. Considering the psychotherapeutic role of work, it has been suggested that some psychological factors aid in vocational choice.
Psychoanalytic Theory on career choice
In the process of rechannelling of unacceptable behaviour to acceptable one, for example, a person who is childless and love children may take up jobs like nursing, while an individual who likes power and authority may take up a job that will enable him apply such trait in a socially acceptable way such as politics.
Brill (1949) is of the view thatsublimationis intimately linked with vocational choice, that the particular vocation an individual chooses is not the result of an accidental arrangement of events. Rather, an individual’s personality and impulses lead him to choose a career in which he may satisfy his basic life impulses. Sadistic impulses may be satisfied by engaging in socially acceptable such as becoming a butcher or a surgeon.
Reality and pleasure principle:
According to the psychoanalytic theory, individuals combine the pleasure and reality principles in vocational selection. The pleasure principle drives an individual to behave in a manner that is immediately gratifying, forgetful of the future consequences of his/her actions. The pleasure principles is at work when one wants a better pay when he/she does something because he/she enjoys it and derives some pleasure from it or when he/she is involved in a particular job to please someone. The reality principle focuses attention on eventual and long-term gratification at the expense of the immediate reward.
The reality point of view deals with the hard facts of the job as they apply to the individual. For instance, job hazards are considered. Ideally, the individuals’ choice of a vocation should be based on both principles such that he/she gets some immediate satisfaction as a consequence of his/her choice of career while at the same time he/she lays the foundation for future success.
Fantasy
In psychoanalytic theory approach, fantasy means the ability to pretend about things that do not exist as if they are in existence. When people pretend to do jobs they are suited for, they always talk about the good aspects of the job. Summers (1956) links fantasy with identification, in which case a person may choose a particular career because he/she has identified a particular career with somebody he/she does not like, even though he/she has the aptitude for such a job, he may not go into it.
Mastery Instinct
This is the innate tendency in every individual to excel in the work he/she has chosen to do. Hendrick (1943) postulates that work pleasure represents gratification of the mastery instinct. Work mastery gives one work satisfaction and this in turn satisfies the ego.
For example, if an individual chooses a job he/she likes best, the mastery instinct will make him/her attempt to control or change some portion of his/her environment through the combined uses of his intellectual and neurological processes. The mastery instinct makes an individual to integrate his/her behaviour and develop skill in performing certain tasks to which he/she applies all his/her strength and aims at the best.
Fear of Success/Failure
The existence of any of these in an individual may result in failure. Some people choose jobs as a result of societal expectations attached to such jobs. Because of these, they either overwork themselves or overestimate their ability and the result may be devastating.
For example, women are very anxious and sensitive about getting-on successfully in their chosen career because they want to excel. Many of them may engage in occupations they cannot maintain and fail in the process. Men are very sensitive about failing in life so they strive hard not to be termed failures by their wives, children, relations and the society.
This fear may also drive some into career they may not have aptitude for. When the tension is too much for them to handle, they can become frustrated. Malnig (1967) has developed a psychoanalytic interpretation of the failure to achieve well in school with the possibility that one’s achievement might surpass those of his father, is frightening to some people since parental reprisal might result. So, besides the fear of success and the fear of failure asmotivatorsfor vocational choice, there may be the fear of loss of affection.
Oedipus Complex
In light of the psychoanalytic theory, sometimes an individual may choose a career because he is influenced by anopposite-sex he likes. Crites (1962) says:
that development through life stages can be guided, partly by facilitating the process of maturation of abilities and interests, and partly by aiding in reality testing and in the development of the self-concept that the process of vocational development is essentially that of development and implementing a self-concept; it is a compromise process in which the self-concept is a product of the interaction of inherited aptitudes and environmental conditions.
That a child develops and as his range of experience widens, he begins to find that he is both like and unlike other people, and he begins to realise that he is a distinct person in his own right.
That the process of compromise between individual and social factors, between self-concept and reality, is one of role-playing, whether the role is played in fantasy, in the counselling interview, or in real-life activities such as school classes, clubs, part-time work, and entry jobs.
That work and life satisfaction depend upon the extent to which the individual finds adequate outlets for his abilities, interest, personality trait, and values; they depend upon his establishment in a type of work, a role which his growth and exploratory experiences have led him to consider congenial and appropriate.
The implications of the psychoanalytic theory for the vocational counselling.
In order to define appropriate vocational counselling goal for an individual, his/her life must be appraised and his/her degree of vocational maturity assessed.
Clarification on the self-concept with one’s life stage may point to inadequate information or even misinformation that can be charged by systematically exposing the counsellor to appropriate experience that will allow the modification and implementation of the self-concept procedures to be used by the counsellor could be non-directive counselling technique making use of vocational appraisal, collecting occupational information directly from the community and relating occupations with training situation to facilitate appropriate decision making.
THE imagination belongs to the general class of mental processes called the representative faculties, by which is meant the processes in which there are represented, or presented again, toconsciousnessimpressions previously presented to it.
As we have indicated elsewhere, the imagination is dependent upon memory for its materialsits records of previous impressions. But it is more than mere memory or recollection of these previously experienced and recorded impressions. There is, in addition to the representation and recollection, a process of arranging the recalled impressions into new forms and new combinations. The imagination not only gathers together the old impressions, but also creates new combinations and forms from the material so gathered.
Reproductive imagination
Psychology gives us many hairsplitting definitions and distinctions between simple reproductive imagination and memory, but these distinctions are technical and as a rule perplexing to the average student. In truth, there is very little, if any, difference between simple reproductive imagination and memory, although when the imagination indulges in constructive activity a new feature enters into the process which is absent in pure memory operations.
In simple reproductive imagination there is simply the formation of the mental image of some previous experiencethe reproduction of a previous mental image. This differs very little from memory, except that the recalled image is clearer and stronger.
In the same way in ordinary memory, in the manifestation of recollection, there is often the same clear, strong mental image that is produced in reproductive imagination. The two mental processes blend into each other so closely that it is practically impossible to draw the line between them, in spite of the technical differences urged by the psychologists.
Of course the mere remembrance of a person who presents himself to one is nearer to pure memory than to imagination, for the process is that of recognition. But the memory or remembrance of the same person when he is absent from sight is practically that of reproductive imagination. Memory, in its stage of recognition, exists in the child mind before reproductive imagination is manifested. The latter, therefore, is regarded as a higher mental process.
Imagination is Constructive
But still higher in the scale is that which is known as constructive imagination. This form of imagination appears at a later period of child mentation, and is regarded as a later evolution of mental processes of the race. Gordy makes the following distinction between the two phases of imagination: “The difference between reproductive imagination and constructive imagination is that the images resulting from reproductive imagination are copies of past experience, while those resulting from constructive
imagination are not. To learn whether any particular image, or combination of images, is the product of reproductive or constructive imagination, all we have to do is to learn whether or not it is a copy of a past experience. Our memories, of course, are defective, and we may be uncertain on that account; but apart from that, we need be in no doubt whatever.”
Many persons hearing for the first time the statement of psychologists that the imaginative faculties can represent and reproduce or recombine only the images which have previously been impressed upon the mind, are apt to object that they can, and frequently do, image things which they have not previously experienced. But can they and do they? Is it not true that what they believe to be original creations of the imagination are merely new combinations of original impressions?
For instance, no one ever saw a unicorn, and yet some one originally imagined its form. But a little thought will show that the image of the unicorn is merely that of an animal having the head, neck, and body of a horse, with the beard of a goat, the legs of a buck, the tail of a lion, and a long, tapering horn, spirally twisted, in the middle of the forehead. Each of the several parts of the unicorn exists in some living animal, although the unicorn, composed of all of these parts, is nonexistent outside of fable.
Imagination is creative
In the same way the centaur is composed of the body, legs, and tail of the horse and the trunk, head, and arms of a man. The satyr has the head, body, and arms of a man, with the horns, legs, and hoofs of a goat. The mermaid has the head, arms, and trunk of a woman, joined at the waist to the body and tail of a fish.
The mythological “devil” has the head, body, and arms of a man, with the horns, legs, and cloven foot of the lower animal, and a peculiar tail composed of that of some animal but tipped with a spearhead. Each of these characteristics is composed of familiar images of experience. The imagination may occupy itself for a lifetime turning out impossible animals of this kind, but every part thereof will be found to correspond to something existent in nature, and experienced by the mind of the person creating the strange beast.
In the same way the imagination may picture a familiar person or thing acting in an unaccustomed manner, the latter having no basis in fact so far as the individual person or thing is concerned, but being warranted by some experience concerning other persons or things. For instance, one may easily form the image of a dog swimming under water like a fish, or climbing a tree like a cat. Likewise, one may form a mental image of a learned, bewigged High Chancellor, or a venerable Archbishop of Canterbury, dressed like a clown, standing on his head, balancing a colored football on his feet, sticking his tongue in his cheek and winking at the audience.
In the same way one may imagine a railroad running across a barren desert, or a steep mountain, upon which there is not as yet a rail laid. The bridge across a river may be imaged in the same way. In fact, this is the way that everything is mentally created, constructed, or invented the old materials being combined in a new way, and arranged in a new fashion. Some psychologists go so far as to say that no mental image of memory is an exact reproduction of the original impression; that there are always changes due to the unconscious operation of the constructive imagination.
The constructive imagination is able to “tear things to pieces” in search for material, as well as to “join things together” in its work of building. The importance of the imagination in all the processes of intellectual thought is great. Without imagination man could not reason or manifest any intellectual process. It is impossible to consider the subject of thought without first regarding the processes of imagination. And yet it is common to hear persons speak of the imagination as if it were a faculty of mere fancy, useless and without place in the practical world of thought.
Developing the Imagination.
The imagination is capable of development and training. The general rules for development of the imagination are practically those which we have stated in connection with the development of the memory. There is the same necessity for plenty of material; for the formation of clear and deep impressions and clearcut mental images; the same necessity for repeated impression, and the frequent use and employment of the faculty. The practice of visualization, of course, strengthens the power of the imagination as it does that of the memory, the two powers being intimately related.
The imagination may be strengthened and trained by deliberately recalling previousimpressionsand then combining them into new relations. The materials of memory may be torn apart and then recombined and regrouped. In the same way one may enter into the feelings and thoughts of other persons by imagining one’s self in their place and endeavoring to act out in imagination the life of such persons. In this way one may build up a much fuller and broader conception of human nature and human motives.
In this place, also, we should caution the student against the common waste of the powers of the imagination, and the dissipation of its powers in idle fancies and daydreams. Many persons misuse their imagination in this way and not only weaken its power for effective work but also waste their time and energy. Daydreams are notoriously unfit for the real, practical work of life.
Imagination and Ideals.
And, finally, the student should remember that in the category of the imaginative powers must be placed that phase of mental activity which has so much to do with the making or marring of one’s lifethe formation of ideals. Our ideals are the patterns after which we shape our life. According to the nature of our ideals is the character of the life we lead.
Our ideals are the supports of that which we call character.
It is a truth, old as the race, and now being perceived most clearly by thinkers, that indeed “as a man thinketh in his heart so is he.” The influence of our ideals is perceived to affect not only our character but also our place and degree of success in life. We grow to be that of which we have held ideals.
If we create an ideal, either of general qualities or else these qualities as manifested by some person living or dead, and keep that ideal ever before us, we cannot help developing traits and qualities corresponding to those of our ideal. Careful thought will show that character depends greatly upon the nature of our ideals; therefore we see the effect of the imagination in character building.
Moreover, our imagination has an important bearing on our actions. Many a man has committed an imprudent or immoral act which he would not have done had he been possessed of an imagination which showed him the probable results of the action. In the same way many men have been inspired to great deeds and achievements by reason of their imagination picturing to them the possible results of certain action.
The “big things” in all walks of life have been performed by men who had sufficient imagination to picture the possibilities of certain courses or plans. The railroads, bridges, telegraph lines, cable lines, and other works of man are the results of the imagination of some men. The good fairy godmother always provides a vivid and lively imagination among the gifts she bestows upon her beloved godchildren. Well did the old philosopher pray to the gods: “And, with all, give unto me a clear and active imagination.”
The dramatic values of life depend upon the quality of the imagination. Life without imagination is mechanical and dreary. Imagination may increase the susceptibility to pain, but it pays for this by increasing the capacity for joy and happiness. The pig has but little imagination,little pain and little joy,but who envies the pig? The person with a clear and active imagination is in a measure a creator of his world, or at least a recreator. He takes an active part in the creative activities of the universe, instead of being a mere pawn pushed here and there in the game of life.
Again, the divine gift of sympathy and understanding depends materially upon the possession of a good imagination. One can never understand the pain or problems of another unless he first can imagine himself in the place of the other. Imagination is at the very heart of sympathy. One may be possessed of great capacity for feeling, but owing to his lack of imagination may never have this feeling called into action.
The person who would sympathize with others must first learn to understand them and feel their emotions. This he can do only if he has the proper degree of imagination.
Those who reach the heart of the people must first be reached by the feelings of the people. And this is possible only to him whose imagination enables him to picture himself in the same condition as others, and thus awaken his latent feelings and sympathies and understanding. Thus it is seen that the imagination touches not only our intellectual life but also our emotional nature. Imagination is the very life of the soul
