In the last article poverty was defined and its relation to food security explained. This article explains the relationship between economic growth and food security as a pre-requisite to enhancing food security. Interventions that promote food security at different levels require financial.
Human and material resources for implementation and these resources can only be generated through increased economic growth. The article recognises the fact that economic increase alone would not automatically ensure food security for all people but that other mechanisms have to be put in place to ensure redistribution of resources arising from economic growth.
Economic Growth and Food Security
Definition of Economic Growth
Economic growth is the incremental value in monetary berms of the wealth of a nation. The total value of goods and services produced by a nation are measured using a compound index called Gross Domestic Product or GDP.
The growth of GDP from one year to the other is measured in percentage terms which may be positive, static or negative depending on the performance of the economy. The higher the economic development rate the higher the amount of financial resources that a country can have available for further investment in various sectors of the economy.
Economic Growth and Food Security
When a country achieves higher levels of economy relative to the size of the economy and population size, potential is created for increased resources to flow towards interventions that address food insecurity both in the short term and long term.
However, it is also possible for the wealth from accelerated economy to be concentrated in a small section of society such that deliberate strategies and incentive mechanisms have to be put in place in order to facilitate the flow of resources from economic increase towards attainment of food security.
The Central Statistical Office and the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives play a critical role in the collection, processing and dissemination of early warning information for food security,
Methods for Collection of Food Security information
Food security information is mostly generated from primary sources through field surveys. Surveys are carried using objective and scientific methods of statistical sampling with CSO playing the leading role. Some information is also generated from secondary sources based on previous surveys and special studies.The six major food security related surveys undertaken by Government include Crop Forecasting Survey (CFS); Post Harvest Survey (PHS); Living Conditions Monitoring Survey (LCMS); Vulnerability Assessments; Household Budget Surveys; Food, Health and Nutrition Information Survey (FHANIS) etc.
Objectives of Providing Food Security information
The Food Security InformationThe main purpose of providing credible and reliable information is to facilitate informed decision making on the part of all stakeholders involved in the promotion of food security. The information is used to profile characteristics of households and characteristics of communities that are food insecure or likely to be food insecure during a given time period. The information is further used to design different types of appropriate interventions to food insecurity and in targeting beneficiaries.
The food balance sheet is basically a ‘mathematical spread sheet’ presentation of aggregate food requirements netted against available food stocks with the resultant balance either being a surplus or a deficit. It is used by countries world-wide and was developed by the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO). The food balance sheet is time bound, for example, it’s may be monthly, quarterly, yearly based on marketing or a consumption year. – It focuses on a specific geographical area, such as. a district, province or country.
The National Food Balance Sheet
The National Food Balance Sheet (NFB) takes into account total national availability or supply of major staple food crops which include:
carry-over stocks or opening stocks
current production
imports
food aid
Food Balance sheetThe other side of the equation in the National Food Balance Sheet takes into account National requirements of major staple food crops which include:
human consumption
government strategic reserves
stock feed
breweries
seed
post-harvest losses
exports
National Staple food (Household level)
In Zambia the staple food crops that are analysed in the Food Balance Sheet (FBS) are maize, rice, wheat, sorghum, millet, sweet potatoes, Irish potatoes and cassava. The 2006/07 Agricultural Season (production for the Marketing Year 2007/08) had a forecasted national maize surplus of 250,000 metric tonnes. Total maize supply was 1,799,188 metric tonnes which was made up of maize production of 1,366,158 metric tonnes and maize carry-over stocks from the previous season of 433,031 metric tonnes compared to the total maize requirement of 1,549,188 metric tonnes. This was declared a surplus year (“achieved national food security“).Food Balance SheetActually, the total national food supply measured in maize mealie-meal equivalent showed a food surplus of 628,396 metric tonnes. The total food available measured in maize mealie-meal kilocalorie-value equivalent figures in the FBS are computed as the sum of all staple food crops including maize that are reported in the FBS.The Food Balance Sheet is an instrument which relates food supply or availability to food demand or requirement. In a particular consumption or marketing year, the FBS helps in estimating the magnitude of food adequacy, shortages or surpluses at a national level. It depicts the annual national food security position but not necessarily the household food security situation.The FBS, therefore, does not give a full picture of the household food security situation. However, it can give an indication of how in general terms the household level food security situation is likely to be. Just like the district or provincial food production figures may not give the precise situation at individual household level, but they could be indicative of what is likely to prevail for the majority of the households.
For example, the FBS may show that there is adequate food at national level as is the case in the 2007/08 marketing year and yet the larger proportion of the food could be concentrated or confined in only a few areas of the country such as Mkushi Farm Block, from which households in chronic food deficit areas such as Chama or Shangombo may not be able to access the adequate or surplus food. Besides distance and poor infrastructure, Access to food can also be prevented by price if it is too high for the majority of the population.The FBS figures should, therefore, be used or interpreted correctly to avoid misleading conclusions in ascertaining the food security situation for individual households. Other approaches or tools, such as household surveys, nutritional surveillance and marketing systems, can be used in comprehensive assessments and analyses of household food security situations.
Food Reserve Agency
In seasons of maize production deficits, maize prices usually go up beyond the reach of poor households. The Government through the Food Reserve Agency (FRA) and the private sector will import maize to make up for the short-fall in national requirements. The imported maize does make up for the national quantitative requirements but at household level the imported maize may still not be accessible to many households due to the high prices.
In seasons of maize deficits, therefore, imported maize does not fully address the household food insecurity of the poor. On the other hand, in seasons of local maize supply surplus, some farmers mainly large scale commercial farmers and commercial traders export maize taking advantage of food production deficits in neighbouring countries.The national food reserves from the Food Reserve Agency (FRA) have helped in stabilizing maize supply and prices in the past several years. However, the very high cost production structure in Zambia has made Zambian maize exports to be more expensive in comparison to maize from countries such as Malawi, Mozambique and South Africa.
Agriculture production costs are very high in Zambia due to high costs of inputs such as fertilizer, hybrid seed, fuel, as well as high electricity tariffs. Besides the maintenance of maize stocks through FRA, other market-based approaches to deal with maize supply fluctuations need to be employed. These approaches could include warehouse receipts, differential pricing, weather insurance etc.
This article specifies and discusses the four pillars which determine food security status or levels. The article defines theavailabilityof food,accessibilityto food,affordabilityof food and theutilisationof food as the four pillars of food security. We finally explain how each of these pillars influences food security.
The four Pillars
The four Pillars of Food Security
Food securityis achieved in four ways which are referred to as the four pillars of food security. These are Availability, Accessibility, Affordability and Utilisation.
Availability
Availability refers to the supply of food at national, district, community, and household levels which is assessed in relation to the corresponding requirements or demand for the food.Food securityAvailability is achieved when the supply of food is equal to or more than the demand for food. National food supply and requirements are measured in kilocalorie equivalent. This corresponds to the amount ofenergythat is obtained by a human being from a given quantity of food.
The availability or supply of food mainly depends on agricultural production, carry-over stocks, food gifts/aid, commodity exchange and trade. Agricultural food production for a given year is the main source of food supply for a country such as Zambia. Food crop production in turn is determined byproductivity levelsor yield rates (quantity produced per hectare) and area (hectarage) cultivated to food crops.
Food productivity is low in Zambia, particularly among small-scale farmers. This is caused by various factors such as reliance on single-season rain-fed agricultural production; low and inappropriate technology use; poor extension services; high production costs resulting from high input costs; labour constraints; livestock and crop pests and diseases; poor agricultural and fisheries resource management practices which diminish the productivity of the resource base. Overall agricultural production has also been negatively affected by low investment in the agriculture sector; inadequate finance and high cost of finance or credit.
While most of the above factors affect food supply at the national level, there are also supply constraints at the household level. These include household food production levels and productivity, family labour constraints (mostly due to poor health and effects of HIV/AIDS), low household resource base including farm implements and inputs, size and structure of households, and gender and age of household heads.
Diversification in Zambian agriculture has not been effectively pursued. Food production has highly focused oncrop productionat the expense of livestock and fisheries production. Even within crop production emphasis has been for support towards maize production with very little support to other food crops such as cassava, millet, sweet potatoes, sorghum, pumpkins, beans, groundnuts and rice. This is attributed to the fact that Zambian consumers have a stronger preference for maize Nshima relative to other food commodities.
When there is a maize deficit pressure is brought to bear on Government to spend millions of dollars to procure maize imports. In order to address this problem Government needs to offer tax incentives and other market support incentives towards marketing and consumption of other food commodities such as cassava, millet, sweet potatoes, sorghum and rice as well as beans, groundnuts pumpkins, fruits, beef, poultry, fish and vegetables. Food crop diversification is important for ensuring that aggregate food supply at the national level meets the food security requirements at the community and household levels.
Accessibility
As one of the pillars of food security, accessibility refers to the fact that food should not only be available but be within reach of households and their individual members. Road and storage infrastructure, as well as other logistical arrangements, must be put in place to ensure timely movement and supply of basic food items to district and community market centres. The food that is available must be within reach of households.
Food accessibility implies physical and economical ability to obtain adequate and nutritious food, Food accessibility is influenced by social, economic and physical factors such as human health, food prices.and distance to food sources (markets).
The functioning of food markets or trade systems and information flow is important in accessing food. Income is another critical factor that determines access to food. Physical infrastructure like availability and state of road networks, telecommunication infrastructures as well as district and community market structures. The distance to these market centres also play an important role in influencing access to food. Social factors or social safety nets such as welfare payments arid social protection, cash remittances including pensions and transfers for the aged, sick, young and other vulnerable social groups also influence access to food.
Affordability
Affordability refers to the fact that food that is available and accessible should be priced at levels that are affordable to the majority of the population. This is one of the pillars of food security which has an income and poverty dimension entailing that the majority of the population must be at income levels that enable them to access basic food commodities.
Thepovertydatum line, income levels and the price of a standard food are critical yardsticks mechanisms for determining the proportion of the population that has the capacity to afford food. Assets are an important resource base in food mechanisms in times of critical financial difficulties or low food production. Assets facilitate access to food through direct and indirect conversion to food. Disposal of assets through trade or barter is a common coping mechanism used by households to enable them to afford food. Employment creation, income generation and savings build the capacity of households to afford food.
·Utilisation
The Utilisation is one of the pillars of food security, which addresses the nutritional requirements. Emphasis is placed on improved health conditions for members of the population to have bodies that can effectively absorb and utilize food nutrients. The food should also be of the right type and quality to be able to meet the nutritional f needs of human bodies thereby enabling people to live a normal, healthy and active life. This entails the need to increase the diversity of staple foods and consumption patterns at national and household levels.
There is a direct relationship between food security and health and nutrition. Poor health and malnutrition are among the main results of food insecurity and this has been confirmed through empirical evidence not only in Zambia but also in other parts of the world. Food security is, therefore, a critical factor in promoting good health and nutrition.
On the other hand, good nutrition, hygiene and health care practices can enable food insecure households to obtain access to a more balanced diet and get more nutritional value from the foods they consume. The food utilization component entails the need to promote food processing and value addition to facilitate the effective absorption of food nutrients by human bodies.
Gender is a very important element in analysis if one takes into account its role. In this post we discuss the importance of taking gender into account when designing and implementing food security interventions. We also explain that addressing gender based constraints to attainment of food security will make women contribute effectively to both household and national food security.Gender and Food Security
Definition of Gender
Gender refers to the different socio-economic roles and dispositions that women face in society relative to those faced by their male counterparts. Gender advocacy aims at ensuring that these roles and dispositions are equitable to both women and men.
Relationship between Gender and Food Security
In traditional African society women play a central role in contributing to household food security. Women and young girls play multiple roles in ensuring that household food security is achieved. They work the land as farmers and labourers while in urban areas they work as marketers and vendors in order to generate incomes and food for their households.Gender and Food SecurityIn the homes they exclusively perform domestic chores including preparation of meals and are directly responsible for the nutritional status of individual household members. Therefore, capacity building of women as a targeted gender group is a critical element in achieving household level food security while also contributing to national food security. This will require clearly identifying and addressing constraints that are peculiar to women as a gender group in relation to food security.
The FBS which is explained in our last post shows how government can trace and have some idea of food stocks in the country. The FBS does not provide a complete picture on the food situation and so government turns to other sources of data. Now we shall introduce you to the concept of vulnerability and food security.
Vulnerability assessment is very important in profiling households. It allows us to separate households between those that are secure and those that are food insecure. We shall further demonstrate how vulnerability assessments are an important mechanism in determining the food security situation at household level.Vulnerability and Food Security
Definition of Vulnerability
Vulnerability is the inadequate capacity by an individual, a household or a community to withstand shocks on their own without any form of external intervention. The shocks may result from natural factors or due to human action. These shocks include natural hazards such as droughts, floods, human and livestock disease outbreaks, pest infestations, etc.. On the ‘other hand, human induced shocks include wars, high inflation, unemployment, high taxes, poor infrastructure, etc.Several factors contribute to household vulnerability to food insecurity in Zambia. These include household income levels, age of the head of the household, education level of household head, gender of household head, size and structure of household. Others include labour constraints (due to poor health and effects of HIV/AIDS), food production levels, food prices, household food taste and distance to food markets.
Household Income Levels
Households with low incomes and those that depend on single (undiversified) sources of income tend to be more vulnerable to food insecurity and particularly, if they do not produce their own adequate food. Such households fail to access food even if food is available at markets, because they cannot afford it from their low incomes.
Age of Household Head
Households headed by very old (aged) people and child-headed households are prone to household food insecurity. This is largely due to inadequate or lack of labour for food production and/or income generation.
Education of Household Head
Education is important in determining the poverty and food security status of households as it widens the options for acquisition of resources necessary for the provision of household basic needs, thereby reducing vulnerability. The probability is high that households headed by educated individuals will not be severely food insecure.
Gender of Household Head
There is a strong relationship between poverty and gender that relates directly to food insecurity. Female-headed households are more likely to be food insecure as compared with male-headed households Size and Structure of Household:The larger the size of the household the higher the likelihood of it being food insecure. In most households, not all members contribute to making food available and yet all members consume food. In general terms, the larger the family size the more the food needs/requirements. Households with a higher proportion of young (children) and very old people also tend to be food insecure.
Food Prices and Distance to Markets
Household food insecurity is more common in places or situations where food prices are higher, Food insecurity due to high food prices is exacerbated by low household incomes, especially for households which do not produce their own food. Long distances to food markets also pose physical limitations to food accessibility.
Household Food Taste
Households that primarily depend on maize (nshima) consumption for food, as is common in Zambia, appear to be ‘artificially’ food insecure. The other alternative food crops may be available but may not be utilized effectively because they are considered to be non-staples.
Household Labour Constraint
This is another factor that adversely affects household food security. Family labour constraints arise due to various reasons, including poor health and effects of HIV/AIDS and; size and structure of the household. Its main effect is on lowering food production and income generation due to reduced family labour force and reduced labour time as a result of sickness and care for the sick, especially with regard to HIV/AIDS-infected household members.
Vulnerability Information
Vulnerability and Food SecurityThis refers to data and information pertaining to the extent to which households and communities are vulnerable, the characteristics of vulnerable households and communities and where they are located. The information also includes the type and magnitude of shock or shocks that the target population is facing.
Vulnerability Assessments
Also known as rapid surveys, vulnerability assessments are conducted in order to generate objective information that will guide decision makers and other actors in addressing vulnerability problems both in the short term and long term horizons. They compare the current situation with a minimum ideal situation and some form of baseline on what conditions obtained at one time in the past.
Addressing food insecurity requires the designing and implementation of interventions which are appropriate to particular causes of food insecurity. There is need to adopt Several food security interventions, in order to address food insecurity in a holistic manner.
Food Security Interventions
Transitory Food Insecurity
Transitory food insecurity is a temporary phenomenon caused by short term shocks. This is food insecurity purely caused by shocks from temporary hazards such as floods, drought, etc., which occur over a short period of time, normally within one agriculture season. Especially that small-scale agriculture is dependent on rain, seasons of drought and floods are often food insecure times. Outbreaks of crop and livestock diseases and pests are also among the natural causes of food insecurity.
Often the country is ill-prepared and equipped for such disasters and/or occurrences. Individual households and communities negatively affected by temporary hazards or disasters normally recover in subsequent seasons when the shocks cease to exist. The challenge is to understand the nature and impact of such shocks so that appropriate interventions can be applied to mitigate food insecurity.
Chronic Food Insecurity
Chronic food insecurity is perpetual and pervasive. it occurs to households and communities regardless of whether there has been a disaster or not. It is a consequence of poverty and underdevelopment. Households and communities that suffer from chronic food insecurity will experience it even when there are no natural or human induced shocks.
These are the types of households and communities that always appear vulnerable and become perpetual beneficiaries of short term interventions in the form of food relief. The challenge is to gain a deeper understanding of the underlying causes of food insecurity, poverty and underdevelopment. The knowledge of this could help in designing and implementation of appropriate short and long term interventions, in order to achieve food security.
Intervention Strategies
· Short Term Interventions
Short term interventions are measures that are implemented over a short period in order to address problems of food insecurity. The emphasis in short term the National Agricultural Policy (NAP) for achieving broad-based agricultural growth focus on diversification and irrigation development. Zambian agriculture, particularly small-scale is seasonal (rain-dependent) so strategies of promoting agricultural diversification and irrigation development are important.
For food insecure farming households, these strategies have to be packaged in ways that are appropriate for the level of skills and assets that these households currently possess or can access. In promoting diversification for food security, it is also prudent to take into account comparative advantage of livelihoods of the various socio-economic groups of the population, in different areas of the Country.
Safeguard and develop natural sources of food
Agriculture in the Zambian setup includes crops, livestock and fisheries and all need to be promoted and developed for increased food security. People living outside natural water bodies should, for example, be encouraged and supported to take up aquaculture, taking into account comparative advantage of the area and livelihoods.
Community-based management of fisheries resources should be encouraged. The available abundant resources of land, water and humans should optimally be utilized in enhancing food security. Agriculture as business also requires financing. Deliberate effort to provide affordable finances/credit to the farming community, especially the small-scale farmers, is imperative.
Food security intervention tips exchange
Information and experience sharing and technological transfer through an efficient and effective extension system should also be supported. There should also be Implementation of this in order to address problems of food security and nutrition. Employment generates income for accessing food and for supporting asset creation to build resilience against shocks. It is also a factor in determining food quality and use. In small-scale farming households, the wage income of one or more family members can make the difference between food security and hunger.
For households which do not depend on their own food production for food security, earned income is usually essential. Employment income can Also make wealth creation possible. This in turn can transform the livelihood Base of a household from a vulnerable to a sustainable one.
Crop diversification
Crop Diversification is one of the Food Security Interventions
Diversified sources of income are a ‘cushion’ for household food insecurity. The More diversified the sources of household income is, the less likelihood there is for the household to be food insecure. Engagement in and opportunities for Income generating activities should be supported, encouraged and created Especially for poor households. Predominantly agricultural households should Also be involved in other (non-agricultural) income-generating activities for Sustainable food security.
Readiness for intervention by emergency institutions
The strengthening of emergency preparedness and response through measures such as the provision of early warning information and data; and creation and maintenance of strategic food reserves is also important and requires serious attention in alleviating food insecurity. Successful implementation of food security interventions requires a multi-sectoral approach. However, correct identification and prioritisation of key Sectors are very important to achieving quick and sustainable results.
The definition of food security that has been adopted by many experts, institutions and Governments is that given by the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) of the United Nations. This definition has also been adopted by the World Bank.
Thus food security is defined as a condition whereby all people have access to food of the right quantity and quality at all times to enable them live an active healthy life. Some institutions, such, as NGOs have gone further to include in the definition, food of the right choice, meeting taste preferences and cultural norms of the targeted people.
Food Security. depositphoto.com
Conditions of food security are assessed at national, community and household levels. Regional groupings such as SADC also aggregate national food security information to the SADC Regional level. Food insecurity is the absence of food security.
Food insecurity has been expressed implicitly in the first Millennium Development Goal which is to eradicate ‘extreme poverty and hunger’. People can be food secure by food supplies from their own production, acquired food or from a combination of both sources. This, therefore, entails physical and economic food availability, accessibility and utilization. This also implies that solutions to food security problems are multi-sectoral.
National Level Food Security
Attainment of national level food security is usually viewed in a period of one year termed as consumption year or marketing year. Food security at national level is achieved when a country has enough supply of major staple food crops to meet national demand. At national level, several factors affect food security including; level of agricultural production and productivity; inefficient marketing systems, state of road and telecommunication infrastructure and network; unemployment and income levels; and general food price levels.Other factors that affect food security are: HIV/AIDS prevalence; natural disasters such as droughts and floods; technological advancement and adoption rates (in terms of percentages or levels of the target population utilizing the technology or improved practices; general economic performance; efficiency of early warning systems and effectiveness of response strategies.
Community Level Food Security
Governments and cooperating agencies also do focus on community level information in order to understand and deal with food security issues at community level involving a village or groups of villages. Community level food security information is obtained from district level stakeholders, Community Based Organisations (CBOs) and community leaders as well as from technocrats based within the local communities.
Household Level Food Security
The individual household is the primary unit that is assessed to determine food security conditions of individual household members. Characteristics of households are profiled in accordance with food security status. These characteristics include food stock levels, disposable incomes, physical and economic access to markets and several coping mechanisms available to the household.Household food insecurity seems to be the critical problem as compared to national food insecurity in many countries including Zambia. Measures that ensure household food security, therefore, deserve a higher priority. The conventional definition of food security clearly focuses on all people accessing food at all times for an active health life. It follows therefore that if all people in all households are food secure then food security is also consequently achieved at community and national levels.
Regional — SADC Level and Global Food Security
Regional Secretariats in Southern, Eastern, West and North Africa coordinate with national governments to establish the food security status of each specific region. The methods used result in the determination of regional deficits or surpluses of key food staples. This information is supplied to FAO Global Early Warning System (GEWS) which in turn compiles and publishes food security information and status for each country in the world including a consolidated summary of the Global food security situation for a given year.The FAO food security reports are used by international organisations and cooperating partners to target interventions on regions and countries of the world that are highlighted as being food insecure.
